
Book :.Qi±J* . 

OFFICIAL ]X)NATION. 



THE 

ECONOMIC VALUE 
OF BIRDS TO THE STATE 

BY 

FRANK M. CHAPMAN 




ALBANY, 
J. B. LYON COMPANY. PRINTERS 
1903 



Compliments of 

WILLIAM F. FOX, 



Supt. State Forests. 



C3tate of New <Jorl^ 
Forest, Pis!) and Game Commission 



Tt>e Economic CMoe of P>irds 

to ff)e 3fafe 

Pran^ A. Chapman 

Associate Curator of Aammolocj^ and Ornithology in tl)e American 
Auseam of Natural History 




ALBANY 

J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS 
1903 



C ont ent s. 



PAGE. 



The Bird and the State, 5 

What the Bird Does for the State, -------- 6 

The Bird and the Forester, - -- -- -- --- 6 

The Bird and the Fruit-grower, - 10 

The Bird and the Farmer, - 15 

The Bird and the Citizen, - - - - ~ 19 

What the State Does for the Bird, - - 20 

What the State Should Do for the Bird, ------- 21 

The Facts in the Case, - - - - - - - - - - -'22 

How a Bird's Value to Man is Ascertained, - - - - - 23 

Statistics of Food Habits, - ----- 23 



3 



Economic Clatae of P>irds to tf)e estate. 

By FRANK M. CHAPMAN 

ASSOCIATE CURATOR OF MAMMOLOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY IN THE 
AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

Ti)e §ird and tl)e 3tate. 

THE bird is the property of the State. From this fundamental conception of 
the bird's legal status there can be no logical ground for dissent. If a 
certain species of bird is conclusively proven to be injurious to the agricul- 
tural or other interests of the State, no one would deny the State's right to destroy 
that species. If, on the contrary, a species is shown to be beneficial, then the 
State has an equal right to protect it. Indeed, we may go further and say it is not 
only the right, but the duty of the State to give to its birds the treatment they 
deserve. Here is the great Commonwealth of New York with agricultural and for- 
estry industries which annually yield products valued at $266,000,000. In the 
closest relation to the welfare of these industries stands a group of animals 
represented by some 350 species and millions of individuals. Obviously, then, it 
is the first duty of the State to learn definitely in what way or ways the presence of 
these incalculably abundant creatures affects its crops and forests. 

If they are harmful how are they to be destroyed? If they are valuable how 
are they to be preserved? In short, the State should take all necessary steps to 
appraise its vast possessions in bird-life. 

The government at Washington realizes the importance of this subject and in 
1886 it established, in the Department of Agriculture, a Division of Economic 
Ornithology and Mammology, with the object of learning accurately the economic 
relations of birds and mammals to man. Illinois, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts and New Hampshire, among the States, have made investigations 
with the same end in view. Now the South is awakening to the vital importance of 
this practical side of natural history research. At the Annual Session of the Texas 
Farmers' Congress, held at College Station, Texas, July 17, 1902, Professor H. P. 
Attwater, a prominent ornithologist in the State, was invited to make an address on 
" The Relation of Birds to the Farmer." In commenting on this address The State, 

5 



6 



SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



a newspaper of Meridan, Miss., says : " Bird protection is going to be made an 
economic issue in every Southern State before many days, and the army of senti- 
mental advocates will be reinforced by the utilitarians, who, while caring nothing 
for the beauty of the feathered songster or the music he makes, are very much alive 
to his usefulness in exterminating insects that kill crops, and are determined to stay 
the hand of the snarer and wanton bird-killer before it is too late and the insects 
have taken possession of the land. * * * Wherever common sense prevails this 
cause will find advocates, and The State would like to see Bird Protection made an 
issue in Mississippi politics." 

No " issue," however, can be successfully promoted unless the facts involved rest 
on the firm, incontrovertible foundation established by exact research. The Forest, 
Fish and Game Commission of New York State, in calling the attention of the 
citizens of the State to the economic importance of birds, desires to present, there- 
fore, the results of the investigations of economic ornithologists into the food 
habits of our birds. But before giving in detail the studies of these specialists it 
will be well to outline in a general way how birds may be valuable or injurious 
to man. 

WI)af tl)e lyrd Does for tl)e 3fafe. 

Birds are of value to the State chiefly through the services they render in (i) 
eating harmful insects, their eggs and larvae ; (2) in eating the seeds of noxious 
weeds; (3) in devouring field mice and other small mammals which injure crops; 
(4) in acting as scavengers. The appended outline of the bird's relation to the 
forester, fruit-grower, farmer, and citizen will enable us to appreciate its economic 
importance. 

The Bird and the Forester. 

The agriculturist, in producing an artificial condition in the plant world, creates 
also an unnatural state of affairs among the insects that find a new food in the 
outcome of his husbandry and among the birds that prey upon these insects. But 
between birds and forests there exist what may be termed primeval, economic 
relations. Certain forest trees have their natural insect foes to which they furnish 
food and shelter ; and these insects, in turn, have their natural enemies among the 
birds to which the trees also give a home. Here, then, we have an undisturbed set 
of economic relations: (1) the tree; (2) the insect which lives in the tree, preys 
upon it, and may assist in the fertilization of its blossoms ; (3) the bird which also 
finds a home in the tree and, feeding upon insects, prevents their undue increase. 
Hence, it follows that the existence of each one of these forms of life is dependent 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



7 



upon the existence of the other. Birds are not only essential to the welfare of the 
tree, but the tree is necessary to the life of the bird. Consequently, there has been 
established what is termed " a balance of life " wherein there is the most delicate 
adjustment between the tree, the insect, the bird and the sum total of the condi- 
tions which go to make up their environment. The more trees, the greater the 
number of insects, and, hence, an increase not only in food supply for the birds, 
but an increase in the number of nesting-sites. 

Destroy the trees and the insect finds new food in the crops of the farmer, but 
the birds, although food is still abundant, lose their home when the tree falls, and, 
lacking the nesting-sites and protection from their enemies once foand in its 
spreading branches, they soon perish. 

What we may call artificial forest conditions are to be found in parks, squares, 
village streets, and in our gardens. Here forest trees may find a suitable soil, but 
birds are often less abundant in such localities than in the forest, and consequently 
the trees growing in them are notably less healthy than forest trees. It is in these 
semi-domesticated trees that a scourge of injurious insects most often occurs, occa- 
sionally to be followed by a marked increase of their bird enemies, which are 
attracted by the unusual abundance of food. Such an instance is recorded in Bird- 
Lore for October, 1899, by Caroline G. Soule, who writes: 

" Last year, at Brandon, Vermont, the tent-caterpillars were so abundant as to 
be a serious injury and annoyance. They lay in close rows, making wide bands on 
the tree trunks. They spun down from the upper branches and fell upon the 
unfortunate passers-by. They crawled through the grass in such numbers that it 
seemed to move in a mass as one looked down upon it. Under these circumstances, 
birds might be expected to do strange things — and they did. 

" The pair of Downy Woodpeckers which lived near us were frequently seen on 
the ground picking up the crawling tent-caterpillars. They seemed to prefer taking 
them from the ground to taking them from the trees, though there were more on 
the tree-trunks than on the ground even. And the Woodpeckers seemed to have 
no difficulty in moving on the ground, though they moved more slowly than when 
dodging around a tree. 

" Two mountain-ash trees on the place were infested by borers, though only 
slightly and only near the ground, and at the foot of one of these trees the Downy 
Woodpeckers made many a stand, while they probed the borer-holes with their 
bills. 

" The Cuckoos came boldly into the village and fed and fed, flying about quite 
openly. The Nuthatches flew to a band of caterpillars on a tree-trunk, and were so 



8 



SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



busy and absorbed in devouring the crawlers that I could put my hand on them 
before they started to fly, and then they merely flew to another tree close by, and 
attacked another mass of caterpillars. 

" Blackbirds waddled over the grass by the sides of the streets picking up the 
crawlers, and even a Woodcock spent several hours in the garden and on the 
lawn, apparently feasting on tent-caterpillars, but I could not get near enough to 
be sure. 

" The Vireos — White-eyed, Red-eyed and Warbling — the Cat-birds, Cedar-birds, 
and Rose-breasted Grosbeaks did good service to the trees and human beings, but 
the most evident destruction was done by the Chipping Sparrows when the moths 
emerged late in the summer. The moths were very abundant after four o'clock in 
the afternoon, flying about the trees to lay their eggs, and then the Chippies became 
fly-catchers for the time, and flew straight, turned, twisted, dodged, and tumbled 
'head over heels and heels over head' in the air, just as the course of the hunted 
moth made necessary. A quick snap of the beak, and four brownish wings would 
float down like snowflakes, and their numbers on the walks, roads and grass showed 
how many thousands of moths were slain. In spite of the unwonted exercise the 
Chippies waxed fat, but not as aldermanic as the Robins, which, earlier, gorged 
themselves on the caterpillars until, as one observer said, ' their little red fronts 
actually trailed on the ground.' " 

The extent to which trees are subject to attack and their consequent need of 
insect destroyers may be more clearly understood if we consider for a moment the 
life of a tree in connection with the insects that prey upon it. Let us take, for 
example, the oaks of the genus Quercus* At the very beginning, before the acorn 
has germinated, it may be entered by a grub of the nut weevil (Balaninus) which 
destroys it, and the more or less empty shell becomes the abiding place of the larva 
of the acorn moth. Should, however, the acorn be permitted to grow, the roots of 
the young tree may be attacked by the white grubs of root-boring beetles. Escap- 
ing these, the oak carpenter worm {Prionoxystus) lays its eggs in cracks and crevices 
in the bark. On hatching, the worm or borer " perforates a hole the size of a half- 
inch auger, or large enough to admit the little finger, and requiring three or four 
years for the bark to close together over it. This hole, running inward to the heart 
of the tree, and admitting water thereto from every shower that passes, causes a 
decay in the wood to commence, and the tree never regains its previous soundness." 
(Fitch.) 

Other borers {Buprestidce) feed upon the bark, eating the soft inner layer and 

* See Packard, P'orest Insects, Fifth Report U. S. Entomological Commission. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE, 



9 



the sap, over twenty species of borers and miners being known to infest the trunk 
of the oak. The limbs and twigs are affected by the larva? of certain beetles {Ccr- 
ambycidce) which act as girdlers or primers, sometimes severing limbs ten feet in 
length and over an Inch in diameter. (Fitch.) The weevils also bore into the twigs, 
making an excavation in which the eggs are laid, and the seventeen-year locust 
stings the branches, making perforations from one to two feet long for the receipt 
of the eggs. 

The limbs and twigs are also affected by tree hoppers {Membracid.ee) and oak 
blights (Aphididce), which puncture them and feed upon their juices, exhausting the 
sap. Some ten species of scale insects, or plant-lice, are known to infest oaks, and 
over a hundred different species of gallflies are parasitic upon them. 

Oak buds are eaten by the larva? of certain noctuid moths, and oak leaves are 
injured by caterpillars, basket worms, skippers, miners, weevils, phylloxeras, galls and 
plant-lice of nearly one hundred and fifty species. 

Altogether over 500 species of insects are known to prey upon the oak, and it is 
consequently obvious that if they were not in turn preyed upon, oak trees could not 
exist. But, thanks to the services of birds, as well as to predaceous and parasitic 
insects, the insectivorous foes of the oak are so held in check that, as a rule, their 
depredations are not attended by serious results. Remove these checks, however, 
atid we may expect an immediate and disastrous increase in the enemies of the oak 
which they so successfully combat. 

Without here attempting to go into detail we may at least mention one or two 
instances illustrative of the value of birds to trees. Weevils, borers, caterpillars, 
scale insects and plant-lice are all devoured by birds, but it is in eating the eggs of 
the enemies of the trees that birds perform a service of inestimable value. Prof. C. 
M. Weed, of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture, in studying the winter 
food of the Chickadee, has found that it feeds largely on the eggs of plant-lice. 
Thus the stomach of a specimen taken December 9, in a mixed growth of pines, 
maple, willow, and birches, was found to contain 429 eggs of plant-lice, together with 
insects of several species. The stomach of another Chickadee taken February 26, 
in a growth of pines and birches, contained 454 eggs of Aphides, an equal percentage 
(44) of what seemed to be dried castings from the old nests of tent-caterpillars, 
spiders' eggs, and eggs of the canker-worm. 

Additional statistics of the forest haunting birds' food are given under the 
proper head, but we should call especial attention here to the great value to trees of 
our Cuckoos in devouring caterpillars. Over 48 per cent of the food of Cuckoos 
has been found by Professor Beal, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, to con- 



IO SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



sist of caterpillars, the stomach of a single individual containing the remains of 217 
web-worms well known to be one of the most destructive forms of insect life to 
trees. These are only two illustrations, among the hundreds which might be cited, 
of the service rendered by the birds to our forest. 

Birds are of value to the forest, however, not only as the destroyers of their 
insect foes, but the birds with the squirrels, help plant the forest by distributing 
seeds. The seeds which are encased in a pulpy covering, those of the berry or fruit- 
bearing trees, are voided unharmed by the birds often at a point far distant from 
the parent tree, the bird thus acting as their distributor. Acorns, beech-nuts, and 
chestnuts are frequently dropped or hidden by birds, and the seeds of pines are 
released and scattered by the birds that seek them in their cones. In short, we 
believe it can be clearly demonstrated that if we should lose our birds we should 
also lose our forests. 

The Bird and the Fruit-grower. 

In considering the relations of birds to the fruit-grower we encounter an artificial 
set of conditions which renders an attempt to determine the birds' position exceed- 
ingly difficult. In growing certain fruits, for example pears and apples, a natural 
forest environment is closely approximated, the trees furnishing a home for the 
birds which are not attracted by their fruit but by the insects that prey upon them. 
With smaller fruits (e. g., berries), however, exactly the reverse occurs, that is, they 
furnish food but no shelter for the birds which, during the periods of fruitage, 
tempted by an abundant food supply, abandon their usual fare and may prove 
positively harmful. Catbirds and Robins in the cherry trees and strawberry beds, 
and Orioles in the vineyards undeniably cause considerable loss to the fruit-grower. 

There are two sides to this question, however, and no species of birds should be 
condemned for the depredations of one month until we known its value during the 
remaining eleven. The bird, we repeat, is the property of the State, not of the indi- 
vidual. The State seeks to secure the greatest good for the greatest number of its 
citizens, and if it can be shown that a Robin or Catbird, in spite of its fruit-eating 
proclivities, is, on the whole, far more valuable than harmful, then assuredly he 
should not be sacrificed. 

It does not necessarily follow that the fruit-growers' complaints are to be ignored. 
Their cause should be thoroughly investigated by qualified experts under the super- 
vision of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission in order that no hasty or undesir- 
able measures may be taken. 

In the spring of 1900 the peach trees of the Hudson Valley were visited by large 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



numbers of birds which destroyed quantities of young peaches. The peach-growers 
took the law into their own hands and killed these birds by the thousand. Subse- 
quently, and perhaps as a result, an unsuccessful attempt was made so to amend 
the Game Law of the State of New York that a fruit-grower might kill any bird 
which he believed to be injurious to his crops. 

The birds in this case were Red Crossbills and White-winged Crossbills, which, 
as a rule, feed exclusively on the seeds of coniferous trees. Owing to a failure in 
their food supply for the season of 1899-1900 they came south in exceptional num- 
bers and were common throughout the winter in places where they are rarely seen. 
The writer, in twenty years' experience, has not witnessed such an invasion of these 
boreal birds, and it is probable that they may not be as numerous again for twenty 
years more. While, on this occasion, Crossbills undoubtedly did much damage to 
the peach crop, the facts in the case render it improbable that they may again be 
destructive to peaches in the present generation. In their own range, under 
normal conditions, Crossbills are of value to forestry as distributors of the seeds of 
conifers, and it obviously would be a poor economist who would condemn a species 
for a few weeks wrong-doing when its previous record showed it to be uniformly 
beneficial. The death penalty is an extreme measure to inflict on birds when the 
verdict is based on evidence from only one side. The planting of early Russian 
mulberries, which birds are more fond of than strawberries and cherries, is one way 
of protecting these fruits without harming the birds. Again, nets and various 
devices, including the discharge of firearms loaded only with powder, may prove as 
effective as the actual killing of the bird. 

With pear and apple orchards, as has been said, this question of fruit-eating 
does not exist, and the service rendered them by birds has been most convincingly 
demonstrated by Mr. E. H. Forbush, from whose observations, published in the 
Massachusetts Crop Report for July, 1895, the following extract is taken. Selecting 
an old, neglected orchard, he made an especial effort to attract certain birds to it 
with the most interesting results. Mr. Forbush writes : 

" The orchard itself is a typical old orchard, such as is often found on small 
farms. It has suffered greatly from neglect. Two-thirds of the original trees have 
died or are in the last stages of dissolution. This is largely the result of neglect 
and improper pruning. Dead limbs and hollows in the trees have offered nesting 
places for such birds as the Wren, Woodpecker and Bluebird. 

"For three years, from 1891 to 1893, inclusive, the trees were trimmed and cared 
for. They were sprayed or banded to protect them from canker worms, and the 
' nests ' of the tent-caterpillar [Clissocampa americand) were removed. The result 



12 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



was a scanty yield of apples from most of the trees. One or two bore quite 
plentifully. 

" In order to observe the effect of the feeding of birds in the orchard no care was 
taken in 1894 to protect the trees. During that year the tent-caterpillars were very 
numerous in the vicinity, and it became evident also that a great increase in the 
number of canker worms was taking place in the neighborhood. Although these 
insects made considerable inroads upon the trees, they did not seriously injure the 
foliage anywhere except in one or two instances. No attempt had been made pre- 
vious to 1895 to foster or encourage the birds in the neighborhood, except that a few 
nesting boxes were put up in 1894, which were occupied in one case by a family of 
Wrens, and in another by the English or House Sparrow. We were careful, how- 
ever, to destroy the nests of the House Sparrow. 

" In the fall of 1894 it was noticed that immense numbers of the wingless females 
of the fall canker worm [Anisopteryx pometarid) were ascending nearly all the trees 
and depositing their eggs; also, that the eggs of tent-caterpillar moths were numer- 
ous on the twigs, promising a plentiful supply for 1895. 

" Having allowed the insects one year to increase unmolested by man, we began 
in the winter of 1894-95 to encourage the presence of birds in the orchard. 

" In 1894 a small tree in the center of the orchard had been inclosed by a high 
board fence. The tree thus inclosed was used as an cut-door experiment station for 
observations on the breeding and habits of the gypsy moth. During the winter of 
1894-95, Mr. C. E. Baily made frequent visits to this tree to ascertain whether or 
not the birds were destroying the eggs of the gypsy moth. Incidentally, Mr. Baily 
observed many interesting things in connection with the feeding of birds on the 
eggs, larvae and pupae of insects which winter on the trees, and I am greatly 
indebted to him for many interesting notes on the feeding of birds in this orchard. 
He is a careful, conscientious observer, and is intimately acquainted with most of 
our native land birds. 

" Hunters and trappers are aware that many species of winter birds, such as Tit- 
mice, Woodpeckers, Crows, Jays and Nuthatches, are attracted by a skinned carcass 
suspended from a limb, and will remain in the vicinity until all the bones are picked 
clean, or until, with the approach of spring, insect food becomes more accessible. 

" Believing from my own observations that the Chickadees {Parus atricapillus) 
were feeding on the eggs of the fall canker worm, I asked Mr. Baily to attract the 
birds, if possible, to the orchard, by suspending pieces of meat, bone, suet, from the 
trees. These food materials are good for birds at times when the trees are covered 
with snow or ice, and when, lacking such nourishment, the}' might starve. Although 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



13 



birds will frequently visit bait provided for them and in time will eat a considerable 
portion of the meat, they do not depend entirely on this aliment, but spend the 
greater portion of their time in searching for eggs and insects in the immediate 
vicinity. 

" Finding a plentiful supply of food, the Chickadees remained about the orchard 
most of the winter, except for a week or two, when the meat gave out, but they 
were lured back again later by a fresh supply which was placed in the trees. Not 
only were the Chickadees attracted to the orchard in large numbers, but other birds 
came also. A pair of Downy Woodpeckers (Dryobates pubescens) and two pairs of 
Nuthatches {Sitta carolinensis) were frequent visitors, and a few Brown Creepers 
{Certhia amcricand) came occasionally. All these paid frequent visits to the meat 
and suet, and also thoroughly inspected the trees in search of insect food. They 
made excursions also to the trees in the neighborhood, but the greater portion of 
their attention was confined to the orchard in which the bait was suspended. As 
they became more accustomed to Mr. Baily's presence, they grew quite tame and 
could be viewed at a distance of a few feet. Indeed the Chickadees frequently 
alighted on his person and occasionally took food from his hand. He was thus 
enabled to determine accurately (without killing them) what they were feeding 
upon, and was soon convinced that they were destroying the eggs of the canker 
worm moth in large numbers, as well as the hibernating larvae and pups of other 
insects injurious to trees.'' 

Investigation showed that this was the case, the stomachs of four birds containing 
no less than 1,028 canker-worms' eggs, while one Chickadee had eaten 4.1 canker-worm 
moths. As the moths at this season contained, on the average, 185 eggs each, it is 
probable that this single bird destroyed over 7,000 canker-worms' eggs in a day. 
Details of this interesting experiment are given in the statistical portion of this 
report, here we may turn at once to Mr. Forbush's results. In the spring " it soon 
became evident," he continues, that the neighboring orchards which had not been 
under the birds' care, " would be entirely stripped of their leaves, while the old 
orchard retained its full foliage. Thus it was seen that the trees to which the 
Chickadees had been lured during the winter had been so well protected that the 
summer birds were able to destroy the few remaining larvae, while the trees at a 
distance from these contained so many larvae . that the birds were not numerous 
enough to dispose of them or to make any effective reduction in their numbers. . k . 

" During the month of May an attempt was made to render the place as attrac- 
tive to the birds as possible. The undergrowth, which previous to 1894 had been 
trimmed out, was afterward allowed to grow, and in 1895 several low thickets had 



14 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



been formed; the mulberry trees were stimulated by judicious trimming, and bore 
a considerable crop of early fruit which ripened in advance of the cherries, and 
served to attract them to the vicinity of the orchard. Ten nesting boxes were put 
up for the Wrens and Blue-birds; but as the Blue-birds were very rare this season 
none came to the orchard. Two families of Wrens, however, were reared in the 
boxes in place of one family last year. Nesting materials — strings, hair and straw 
— were hung in the trees and scattered about. Several marauding cats were killed, 
and an attempt was made to keep nest-hunting boys away from the neighborhood as 
much as possible. Thirty-six nests of birds were discovered in the neighborhood, 
as follows : 

" Three red-eyed Vireos, ten Robins, four Baltimore Orioles, three Cuckoos, five 
Chipping Sparrows, three Least Flycatchers, two Redstarts, two Yellow Warblers, 
two Chickadees, two House Wrens. 

" Of these all but three were destroyed, probably by boys, the nests being torn 
down and the eggs missing. The three which escaped destruction were two wrens' 
nests, which had been built in boxes upon buildings, and a robin's nest in a maple 
tree within ten feet of a chamber window. This wholesale destruction of nests 
discouraged several pairs of birds, and they disappeared from the neighborhood. 
Those remaining built new nests, and after a second or third attempt a few 
succeeded in rearing young. One nest of Orioles escaped the general destruction, 
and the birds were busy for a long time carrying canker-worms to their young. One 
of them was noticed to take eleven canker-worms in its beak at one time and fly 
with them to the nest. The Vireos, Warblers, Chickadees, Cuckoos, Orioles and 
Chipping Sparrows were particularly active in catching canker-worms, and the Eng- 
lish Sparrow killed them in considerable numbers. 

" If the thirty-six pairs of birds whose nests were found had succeeded in raising 
their young it is probable that they would have disposed of most of the canker- 
worms in the neighborhood. Five thousand of these larvae are sufficient to strip a 
large apple tree. One hundred and eight would have been reared had each pair of 
birds raised three. According to Professor Aughey's experience sixty insects per 
day as food for each bird, both young and old, would be a very low estimate. 
Suppose each of these one hundred and eight birds had received its sixty insects 
per day, there would have been 6,480 caterpillars destroyed daily. The destruction 
of this number of caterpillars would be enough to save the foliage and fruitage of 
one apple tree. In thirty days the foliage of thirty apple trees could have been 
saved, or 194,400 canker-worms destroyed. This does not include what the old birds 
themselves would have eaten." 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



15 



Mr. Forbush concludes: "At the present time, July 23, 1895, the trees in the 
orchard appeared to be in good condition. They have not suffered from the slight 
pruning of their foliage which was effected by the few caterpillars and canker-worms 
which survived. The fruit is well set and it here remains to be seen whether the 
birds will have any considerable effect in preventing the ravages of the coddling 
moth. No other orchard in the neighborhood will produce any fruit this season, 
with one exception." 

Not the least valuable part of Mr. Forbush's report is his description of the 
methods employed to make his orchard attractive to birds. We shall return to this 
later, but such vitally important steps as the leaving of some undergrowth and 
killing of cats cannot be urged too often. 

The Bird and the Farmer. 

In the growing of field and garden crops, of grains and vegetables, the farmer 
produces a more artificial state of affairs than that which is occasioned by the fruit- 
grower, or, at least, the orchardist. The nature of his crops, their frequent tilling, 
and often early reaping, all combine to make them afford poor nesting-sites, even 
for such birds as would be likely to select them. To most insectivorous birds, 
however, areas devoted to farming purposes do not offer suitable nesting places, and 
it follows, therefore, that where the farmer most needs the services of insect-eating 
birds there these birds are deprived of surroundings in which they might find 
shelter and rear their young. 

We shall later see how, to some extent, these conditions may be remedied. In the 
meantime we may inquire more closely into the relations of the bird and the farmer. 
Birds are of value on the farm (1) as insect-eaters, (2) as seed-eaters, (3) as mouse 
or rodent-eaters. Birds are injurious on the farm when they attack the crops, such 
damage being essentially restricted to corn, rye, and other grains. As in other 
cases, it is our object to learn what species are beneficial and what injurious, and to 
determine whether the harm done by certain species at certain seasons is outweighed 
by the good they do at other seasons. 

The value of birds as insect-eaters is so obvious it will be unnecessary to dwell 
here on this phase of their relations to agriculture. One instance, however, may be 
cited in which birds preserved a crop through the destruction of its insect foes. It 
came under the observation of so excellent an authority as Prof. F. E. L. Beal, of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, from whose address before the New Jersey 
State Horticultural Society I quote as follows: "Field observation and stomach 
examination both show that the Rose-breasted Grosbeak makes the Colorado potato 



1 6 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 

beetle the principal part of its food whenever it can be obtained. A case which 
came under my own observation will show how thoroughly they do their work. A 
small field of about a fourth of an acre was visited by a pair of Grosbeaks as soon 
as the potatoes were fairly above the ground. At first the beetles increased faster 
than the birds could destroy them, but after the young of the birds had hatched the 
beetles began to diminish, and by the time the young were able to fly the field was 
clear — not a beetle was to be found." * 

This illustrates also the tendency of birds to prey upon some insect which, in 
becoming unduly abundant, offers them an unusual supply of food. Birds, for 
example, have been known to gather in great numbers to repel, as it were, an inva- 
sion of grasshoppers. Quoting again from Professor Beal's address: "Ground- 
feeding birds eat these insects at all times when they can be obtained ; but in the 
month of August, which is the month when they attain their maximum abundance 
and frequently become a pest, nearly all birds, no matter what their usual food 
habits may be, come to the ground and eat grasshoppers. Such birds as the Balti- 
more Oriole, and the Cuckoo, which normally find their food upon the trees, change 
their habits in August and leave the trees to forage upon the ground. A few years 
ago, when the western part of the country was devastated by the Rocky Mountain 
locust, it was found that nearly every species of bird, even the larger Hawks, and 
Ducks and Geese, fed upon them to a considerable extent." 

One of the notable achievements of the economic ornithologist has been to 
emphasize the value of seed-eating birds, the Sparrows, Doves, Blackbirds and 
others. It is a common error to believe that birds are of service to man only as 
insect-eaters, and that the non-insectivorous species, if not harmful, are, at least, of 
no particular use. But the fact is that these same insignificant looking Sparrows are 
the farmers' best allies in his never-ending warfare against weeds. 

During the winter weed seeds form practically the entire fare of a number of 
species of Sparrows ; the seeds of amaranth, crab grass, ragweed, and pigeon grass 
being the kinds devoured most frequently. 

Dr. S. D. Judd, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who has made a special 
study of the food habits of seed-eating birds, states that 1,000 pigweed seeds were 
found in the stomach of a Snowbunting killed at Shrewsbury, Mass., in February, 
and that 700 seeds of pigeon grass were taken from a single Tree Sparrow ; and the 
investigations of Professor Beal in the State of Iowa show that this species during 
the period of its presence, from October until April, destroyed each year about 875 
tons of weed seeds. 



* Proc. Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting New Jersey State Horticultural Society. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



17 



Further practical evidence of the seed-eating ability of birds is furnished by Dr. 
Judd, who writes: "On a farm in Maryland, just outside the District of Columbia, 
Tree Sparrows, Fox Sparrows, White Throats, Song Sparrows and Juncos, fairly 
swarmed during December in the briers of the ditches between the cornfields. They 
came into the open fields to feed upon weed seed, and worked hardest where the 
smartweed formed a tangle on low ground. Later in the season the place was care- 
fully examined. In one cornfield near a ditch the smartweed formed a thicket over 
3 feet high, and the ground beneath was literally black with seeds. Examination 
showed that these seeds had been cracked open and the seed removed. In a rectan- 
gular space of 18 square inches were found 1,130 hayseeds, and only two whole seeds. 
Even as late as May 13, the birds were still feeding on the seeds of these and other 
weeds in the fields; in fact, out of a collection of 16 Sparrows 12, mainly Song, 
Chipping and Field Sparrows, had been eating old weed seed. A search was made 
for seeds of various weeds, but so thoroughly had the work been done that only half 
a dozen seeds could be found. The birds had taken practically all the seed that 
was not covered ; in fact, the Song Sparrow and several others scratch up much 
buried seed." * 

To the recent researches of the economic ornithologist we must also turn for 
exact information concerning the food of Hawks and Owls. No birds have been 
more maligned and misunderstood than these birds of prey. The misdeeds of two 
or three species have brought all the members of their family into disrepute. 
Because one Hawk has been seen to catch a chicken all Hawks are " Chicken 
Hawks," and, consequently, to be killed Avhenever opportunity offers. Not only is 
no protection afforded these birds by law, but in some States a bounty has been 
given for their destruction. Indeed, a law of this nature was passed by the Massa- 
chusetts Legislature, and the history of the so-called " Scalp Act" in Pennsylvania 
furnishes a convincing illustration of the direct pecuniary loss which may follow igno- 
rance of the economical value of birds. Quoting from the report for 1886 by Dr. C. 
Hart Merriam, Chief of the Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture: 
" On the 23d of June, 1885, the Legislature of Pennsylvania passed an act known 
as the ' scalp act,' ostensibly ' for the benefit of agriculture,' which provides a 
bounty of fifty cents each on hawks, owls, weasels and minks killed within the 
limits of the State, and a fee of twenty cents to the notary or justice taking the 
affidavit. 

" By virtue of this act about $90,000 has been paid in bounties during the year 



* Birds as Weed Destroyers. Year Book of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for 1898, p. 226. 



1 8 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 

and a half that has elapsed since the law went into effect. This represents the 
destruction of at least 128,571 of the above-mentioned animals, most of which were 
hawks and owls. 

" Granting that 5,000 chickens are killed annually in Pennsylvania by hawks and 
owls, and that they are worth twenty-five cents each (a liberal estimate in view of the 
fact that a large portion of them are killed when very young), the total loss would 
be $1,250, and the poultry killed in a year and a half would be worth $1,875. Hence 
it appears that during the past eighteen months the State of Pennsylvania has 
expended $90,000 to save its farmers a loss of $1,875. But this estimate by no 
means represents the actual loss to the farmer and the taxpayer of the State. It is 
within bounds to say that in the course of a year every hawk and owl destroys at 
least a thousand mice or their equivalent in insects, and that each mouse or its 
equivalent so destroyed would cause the farmer a loss of two cents per annum. 
Therefore, omitting all reference to the enormous increase in the numbers of these 
noxious animals when nature's means of holding them in check has been removed, 
the lowest possible estimate of the value to the farmer of each hawk, owl, and 
weasel would be $20 a year, or $30 in a year and a half. 

" Hence, in addition to the $90,000 actually expended by the State in destroying 
128,571 of its benefactors, it has incurred a loss to its agricultural interests of at 
least $3,857,130, or a total loss of $3,947,130 in a year and a half, which is at the 
rate of $2,631,420 per annum. In other words, the State has thrown away $2,105 
for every dollar saved ! And even this does not represent fairly the full loss, for 
the slaughter of such a vast number of predaceous birds and mammals is almost 
certain to be followed by a correspondingly enormous increase in the numbers of 
mice and insects formerly held in check by them, and it will take many years to 
restore the balance thus blindly destroyed through ignorance of the economic 
relations of our common birds and mammals." 

Detailed results of the analysis of the stomach contents of our Hawks made by 
the ornithologists of the U. S. Department of Agriculture fully substantiate this 
claim of the economic value of most of these birds and are given beyond. 

Owls, because of their nocturnal habits, are even better mousers than Hawks. It 
is their habit to disgorge, in the form of pellets, the fur and bones of their prey, and 
in 675 such pellets, from the Barn Owl, taken in one of the towers of the Smithsonian 
Institution at Washington, Dr. A. K. Fisher found the remains of 1,119 meadow or 
field mice, 4 pine mice, 452 house mice, 134 rats, and several other species of small 
mammals, together with a few small birds of no especial economic importance. 

No farmer whose corn in field or granary, whose potatoes and other crops have 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



! 9 



been damaged by the destructive field mice, can fail to realize on reading these 
figures what a powerful ally he has in Owls. 

In the face of all these benefits conferred by birds as insect, seed, and mouse- 
eaters, we perhaps can view more charitably the depredations of the Crows and 
Blackbirds in our corn and grain fields. The tarring of corn proves an effective 
means of making it unpalatable to Crows, but no such convenient means has been 
discovered for protecting fields of grain from the ravages of the hordes of Black- 
birds which are attracted to them by the bountiful supply of choice food they Offer, 
and in this instance man has so far disturbed nature's balance that the scales have 
been turned against him, and the bird has become an enemy rather than a friend. 

The Bird and the Citizen. 

While, indirectly, the citizen of course shares in the services rendered by birds 
to our agricultural interests, birds have an additional claim upon his good will. 
Birds destroy many undesirable insects, mosquitoes, for example, some species of 
which have recently been found to be so inimical to the health of the human race. 
Birds further increase the healthfulness of the world by acting as scavengers. It 
would be difficult to overestimate the value of the Buzzards, Vultures, and other 
offal-eating birds to the countries in which they live. In most instances the eco- 
nomic importance of these birds is too obvious to be overlooked, and they are, there- 
fore, protected by law, and, by what is far more powerful than law, public sentiment. 

In our Southern States the Turkey Buzzard and Black Vulture, or " Carrion 
Crow " have become so numerous and tame as a result of the protection there given 
them that they walk around the streets of the towns and cities in great numbers, 
and with no more evidence of fear than is shown by poultry. Every one realizes 
that a living Buzzard is of infinitely more value than a dead one, and in many years' 
experience in the South I have never seen a Buzzard molested. 

In New York, it is true, we have no Buzzard, but on the waters of our seacoast, 
harbors, lakes and larger rivers, their place is taken by Gulls of several species, which, 
in feeding on the forms of aquatic life which, in dying, come to the surface, perform 
a sanitary service of the first importance. 

While a discussion of the economic relations of birds might be supposed to con- 
fine us to a consideration of the material side of their lives, he would indeed be 
lacking in imaginative power, in ability to appreciate the usefulness or beauty, who 
did not find in these pre-eminently graceful, musical, attractive creatures a source 
of pleasure to mankind deserving our serious attention from the physiologic, and 
hence, economic standpoint. 



20 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



The pursuit which takes us afield and gives us rest and exercise combined, and 
increases our resources by broadening our interest in nature, is not merely a pastime, 
but a recreation benefiting both mind and body, and better preparing us for our 
duties as citizens of the State. No one would think of asserting that the value of 
New York's game animals was to be reckoned in the terms of the bill-of-fare. A 
few thousand dollars would express their wealth to the butcher or restaurateur, but 
to the true sportsman they are an exhaustless mine of wealth. A day with dog and 
gun, rod or rifle may bring small return from a pecuniary point of view, but who 
can calculate the amount of physical good and pure enjoyment it has afforded ? 
Game bag and creel may, indeed, be empty, while our mind is full of stimulating 
experiences, all increasing our eagerness to take to the field again. 

So the hunter of birds with opera glass and camera finds an even deeper pleas- 
ure in his excursions into their haunts and study of their ways ; a pleasure which 
no accounting of the value of birds to the State can ignore. 

WI>af tl)e dfafe Does for f!)e §ird. 

In view of the economic importance of birds to our agricultural interests it may 
now well be asked what is the attitude of the State toward creatures whose welfare 
is so closely connected with that of its citizens? Does it take proper measures to 
protect them ? Does it urge the employment of methods designed to aid in their 
increase ? 

It is true that the State formally recognizes the value of its assets in bird-life by 
the passage of laws intended to give birds legal protection, but no adequate means 
are provided for their enforcement. Where one person is prevented from killing a 
bird a thousand commit murder unchecked ; nor can this evil be remedied without 
a material increase in the force of game wardens. The latter, as their official title 
implies, are appointed chiefly to enforce the laws relating to game while the laws 
concerning the far more numerous, and economically more valuable, non-game birds 
are generally dead letters. 

So-called sportsmen shoot these birds in pure wantonness, pot-hunters slaughter 
them for market, foreigners kill them for food, milliners' agents collect them to 
supply fashion's demands, boys find them a tempting mark for bean-shooters and 
air-guns ; while birds' eggs are taken as the legitimate prize of nearly every child 
who finds a nest. To these unnatural and remediable causes for the destruction of 
our birds should be added the ravages of the so-called domesticated cat. There are 
probably not less than two million cats in the State of New York. While many of 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



them are well-fed pets, the larger proportion are to a greater or less extent 
dependent on their own efforts, often preferably so, for food. A single cat has been 
known to catch sixty wild birds in a season, and a well-known naturalist and 
authority on the birds of New England estimates that at least 1,500,000 birds are 
killed annually by cats in the New England States. 

It is unnecessary here to dwell on the decrease in bird-life following the clearing 
of forests, draining of land, accompanying the growth in our population, for this, in 
a measure, is unavoidable, it being my object only to show that so far as the State 
assumes an attitude towards the birds, that attitude is one of destruction. 

Wl)af tl)e atate 3l)oold Do for fl)e §ird. 

It being demonstrated that, in the main, birds are of great value to the State, it 
follows that the State should spare no effort to afford its citizens of the air the 
protection they deserve. How, then, may we most effectively prevent the great 
destruction of bird-life which occurs in this State? The most rational methods 
would appear to be: (1) Enforcement of the law; (2) licensing of cats and destruc- 
tion of all non-licensed cats ; (3) teaching children to realize the economic and 
aesthetic value of birds ; (4) leaving hedge rows, undergrowth, and clumps of trees 
as resorts for birds. The laws of the State of New York relating to birds are so 
well drawn that their enforcement would give our non-game birds complete legal 
protection from their enemy man. But, as has been said, the present force of game 
wardens is far too small to afford our birds the protection which is their due. 
What is needed, however, is not an addition to the number of game wardens, but a 
new officer who shall be known as a bird warden, and whose especial duty shall be 
to enforce the laws designed to protect non-game birds. Such officer should not 
only prevent the illegal killing and trapping of birds, but should examine the stock 
of milliners and others who offer plumage for sale. 

The growing interest in the study of nature and the establishment of nature 
study courses in our schools, in connection with the admirable campaign to teach 
the people the value of birds, inaugurated by the Audubon societies and the 
American Ornithologists' Union, has already created a sentiment in favor of bird 
protection without which the best of laws are practically ineffective. 

Teachers have been quick to realize that the inherent, universal interest in bird- 
life can be made of great educational and moral value in the training of children. 
No force at the State's command could effectually prevent boys from robbing nests 
and killing birds. Nor should the boy be prevented by force from giving this wholly 



2 2 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



natural exhibition of traits inherited from savage ancestors. The remedy here is to 
be applied, not by the State's bird wardens or police, but by its teachers. A nor- 
mal, healthy boy should want to hunt birds and their nests, but a very little of the 
right kind of instruction at this stage of his life will often so broaden his interests 
that he soon finds living birds more attractive than dead ones. 

As for the destruction of birds by cats, there can be no doubt that it would be 
largely decreased by the passage of a law requiring the annual licensing of cats, and 
authorizing the proper authorities to kill all non-licensed cats. Such a law should 
be supported not only by the friends of birds, but by the friends of cats as" well. 
By the former because the restriction of the cat population to the well-fed tabby of 
the fireside would not only greatly reduce the cat population, but would do away 
with its worst element, the cats who hunt for a living. It should be supported by 
the latter because its enforcement would put an end to the existence of the many 
starving felines of our cities whose happiest fate is sudden death. 

If birds are of value, as we believe them to be, we should not only prevent their 
decrease, but we should take such measures as seem calculated to assist their 
increase. We have seen that in destroying our forests we deprive many insectivo- 
rous birds of their homes, while in clearing hedge rows we often rob seed-eating 
birds of the protection the undergrowth affords them. With comparatively little 
trouble we can add greatly to the attractions of our farms and gardens from the 
birds' point of view. Clumps of trees left in the fields and rows of trees along the 
hedge rows will prove paying investments, and wherever it does not seriously inter- 
fere with the tilling of the land the undergrowth should be spared. During the 
winter food in small quantities may be used to attract birds, and in the summer 
water for bathing or drinking is always welcomed by them. Wren and Bluebird and 
Martin houses should be erected in suitable positions with the hope of securing bird 
tenants, who will pay a most profitable rental. 

TI)e Pacts in tl)e Case. 

Thus far the results of the work of economic ornithologists have been alluded 
to only in a general way. It is now proposed to take up systematically the 
economically more important of our birds and present the known facts regarding 
their food-habits. In the first place, however, due mention should be made of the 
sources whence this information is derived and some description should be given of 
the manner in which it is obtained. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



2 3 



How a Bird's Value to Man Is Ascertained. 

To learn with scientific exactness the nature of a bird's food and then to deter- 
mine whether it is an injurious or beneficial species requires especial training on the 
part of the investigator. He must not only be an ornithologist but he must also 
have a knowledge of botany and entomology. Three methods are employed by 
the economic ornithologist in studying a bird's food : (i) The bird may be caged in 
order that its dislikes, likes, and preferences, as well as the quantity of food it will 
consume in a given time may be ascertained ; (2) the bird may be studied in 
nature, and (3) the contents of a bird's stomach may be examined. The last- 
named method yields by far the most definite and satisfactory results and is the 
one most frequently employed. While the individual student may, unassisted, 
make the best use of his opportunities to learn the character of a bird's food, the 
food habits of a species can be properly determined only through the analysis of a 
large number of stomachs taken at places throughout its range and representing all 
the seasons. Our most important investigations into the food habits of birds have, 
therefore, been made by specialists in the employ of the State who could secure the 
co-operation of others. Economic ornithologists representing the States of Illinois, 
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Nebraska have con- 
tributed largely to our knowledge of the food habits of birds, but for the greater 
part of our exact knowledge of the economic value of our birds we are indebted to 
the Biological Survey of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washington. It 
is from the sources just mentioned then, and especially from the publications 
of the Biological Survey, that the following facts, based in the main on stomach 
examinations, are taken : 

dfatistics of Food Habits. 

WATER BIRDS. 

As yet practically no systematic study has been made of the food of water birds. 
It is known, however, that Gulls are of great service as scavengers feeding on 
aquatic animals which, in dying, come to the surface. The truth of this statement 
was very forcibly impressed on my mind, when, some years ago, I visited the lower 
harbor of New York Bay to see the Gulls which were attracted there by the garbage 
which each day at high tide was deposited on the water by the scows of the Street- 
cleaning Department of New York City. The number of Gulls present on this 
occasion was beyond calculation, but certainly exceeded three hundred thousand. 
Before the scows began to discharge their cargo most of the birds were resting on 



24 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



the water, but at the sound of the whistle giving the signal to dump, they arose in 
clouds and clustered thickly over the wake of each of the eleven scows to feed on 
the vegetable and animal matter thrown overboard. It was a most impressive 
object lesson in the economic value of these birds, which, until recently, have been 
destroyed in enormous numbers for millinery purposes. 

In our interior States, Franklin's Gull, the Ring-billed Gull, and Black Tern -feed 
largely on grasshoppers at certain seasons, and it is their habit to follow the plough 
in search of the grubs it exposes. A common sight in parts of the west, therefore, 
is a flock of Gulls and Terns hovering thick about the ploughman. 

" The Snipe, Sandpipers, Plovers, Phalarapes, Curlews, etc.," Prof. Lawrence 
Bruner remarks,* " are great destroyers of insects. Moving, as many of them do, 
in great flocks and spreading out over the meadows, pastures and hillsides, as well as 
among cultivated fields, they do a large amount of careful police service in arresting 
culprits among the insects. They even pry them out of burrows and crevices 
in the earth where these creatures lurk during the daytime, only to come forth 
after nightfall to destroy vegetation. The large flocks of Eskimo Curlew that 
formerly passed through Eastern Nebraska did magnificent work during years when 
the Rocky Mountain locust was with us, as did also the equally large flocks of 
Golden Plover. The Bartramian Sandpiper [Field or Upland Plover] even now is 
a great factor each summer in checking the increasing locusts on our prairies." 

LAND BIRDS. 
GROUSE AND QUAIL. Family Gallinze. 

Ruffed Grouse : Partridge (Bonasa umbellus). — " Of six specimens examined 
two had eaten 24 caterpillars; one, the grub of a beetle, one, 2 grasshoppers, one 7 
harvest-men ; one, fruit ; one, foliage ; one, seeds ; one, partridge berries ; and three, 
buds. 

" A young chicken [Partridge], probably not over a week old, had in its stomach 
13 caterpillars, the grub of a beetle and 7 harvest-men." f 

While Partridges often feed on the buds of trees it does not appear that the 
habit is an injurious one, a certain amount of pruning being not undesirable. 

Quail : Bob-White (Colinus virginiamis). — " The Eastern Quail or Bob-White," 
writes Dr. Judd,J does much good by destroying weed seeds in fields where grain 
has been cut and a rank growth of weeds has taken its place. Seeds of rib grass, 

* Birds in their Relation to Agriculture. Proc. Nebraska Ornithologists' Union, 1901, p. 21. 
f King, Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds, Geology of Wisconsin, I, 591. 
\ Birds as Weed Destroyers. Year Book, Dept. of Agriculture. 1898, p. 231. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



25 



tickfoil, and berries of nightshade (Solanum sp.) are sometimes eaten, and pigeon 
grass and smartweed are frequently consumed in large quantities. The amount of 
grain found in the few stomachs thus far examined is surprisingly small, while the 
proportion of weed seed is astonishingly large, in some cases crops and gizzards 
being literally gorged with hundreds of seeds of ragweed." 

Quail also eat potato-beetles and grasshoppers, and in Texas their food in the 
fall is said to consist " chiefly of various seeds and Mexican boll weevils, which are 
so disastrous to the Texas cotton fields." * 

DOVES. Family Columbidae. 

Mourning Dove : Carolina Dove {Zenaidura macrourd). — " The Mourning Dove 
is abundant throughout much of the United States, and is especially common in 
stubble fields and waste places, grown up to weeds. It is pre-eminently a seed-eater, 
and although at times turning its attention to grain, it nevertheless consumes an 
enormous amount of weed seed. The crop of one Dove secured in a rye field in 
Warner, Tenn., contained 7,500 seeds of Oralis stricta [Yellow Wood-sorrel]." 
(Judd.) 

" In the stomach of one kind I counted 4,016 seeds of the pigeon grass and 12 
small snails ; the latter were probably taken as gravel." (King.) 

HAWKS, FALCONS, ETC. Family Falconidas. 

It was because of the widespread misunderstanding of the food habits of our 
Hawks and Owls, and because of their unusual economic value, that one of the first 
acts of the Division of Economic Ornithology, now the Biologic Survey, of the 
United States Department of Agriculture was to undertake a careful and elaborate 
study of the food of Hawks and Owls in order that their status might rest on the 
sound basis of observed facts. 

This work was intrusted to Dr. A. K. Fisher, Assistant Ornithologist of the 
Survey, a naturalist of wide experience, who has won for himself a well-deserved 
reputation as a most careful and conscientious investigator. 

After several years passed in accumulating material and in examining the 
contents of the stomachs of nearly 2,700 Hawks and Owls, Dr. Fisher concluded a 
volume of 200 pages in which are fully set forth the results of his studies. This 
volume forms Bulletin No. 3 of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, and 
it is considered to be one of the most valuable contributions to economic zoology 



*Schutze. The Summer Birds of Central Texas, p. 2. 



26 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



ever made. From it the following statistics in regard to the food of our Hawks and 
Owls are quoted : 

Red-Shouldered Hawk : Chicken Hawk {Buteo /meatus). — This and the follow- 
ing species are the commonest Hawks in the State and the ones to which the names 
Chicken Hawk and Hen Hawk are generally applied. The loud screaming ke£-yer 
kee-yer of the Red-Shoulder as he sails far above the earth is a familiar sound and 
usually, though wrongly, associated by the farmer with depredations in the poultry 
yard. 

Summary of Contents of 220 Stomachs of the Red-Shouldered Hawk. {From Fisher.) 
3 stomachs contained poultry. 

12 stomachs contained other birds. 
102 stomachs contained mice. 

40 stomachs contained other mammals. 
20 stomachs contained reptiles. 
39 stomachs contained batrachians. 
92 stomachs contained insects. 
16 stomachs contained spiders. 

7 stomachs contained crawfish. 

1 stomach contained earth worms. 

2 stomachs contained offal. 

3 stomachs contained fish. 
14 stomachs were empty. 

Red-Tailed Hawk : Chicken Hawk {Buteo borealis). — This species, of which a 
figure is given, is decidedly larger than the preceding. Its note is a long squealing 
whistle. 

Summary of the Contents of 562 Stomachs of the Red-Tailed Hawk. {From Fisher.) 

54 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 

51 stomachs contained other birds. 
278 stomachs contained mice. 
131 stomachs contained other mammals. 

47 stomachs contained insects. 

8 stomachs contained crawfish. 

I stomach contained centipede. 

13 stomachs contained offal. 

37 stomachs contained batrachians or reptiles. 
89 stomachs were empty. 




Upper figure, RED-TAILED HAWK 
Lower figure, COOPER'S HAWK 

ABOUT NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



27 



Broad-winged Hawk {Buteo platypterus). — The name "Chicken Hawk" is also 
applied to our Broad-winged Hawk, a somewhat smaller species than the two pre- 
ceding, but closely related to them ; but examination of 65 stomachs of this bird 
failed to show that one bird of the number had eaten poultry. The Broad-wing's 
note is a high, thin, long-drawn, piercing whistle. 

Summary of the Contents of 65 Stomachs of t lie Broad-winged Hawk. {From Fisher.) 

2 stomachs contained small birds. 
15 stomachs contained mice. 
13 stomachs contained other mammals. 

1 1 stomachs contained reptiles. 

13 stomachs contained -batrachians. 
30 stomachs contained insects. 

2 stomachs contained earth worms. 

4 stomachs contained crawfish. 

7 stomachs were empty. 

Sparrow Hawk (Falco sparverius). — When we study the food of our so-called 
Sparrow Hawk, we find it is a truly insectivorous bird as will be seen from the 
appended table : 

Summary of the Contents of J20 Stomachs of the Sparrow Hawk. {From Fisher.) 

1 stomach contained a game bird. 
53 stomachs contained other birds. 
89 stomachs contained mice. 

12 stomachs contained other mammals. 

12 stomachs contained reptiles or batrachians. 

215 stomachs contained insects. 

29 stomachs contained spiders. 

29 stomachs were empty. 

Marsh Hawk [Circus hudsonius). — A Hawk frequently observed, because of its 
habits of hunting in the open, is the Marsh Hawk ; he may be known by the white 
patch at the base of his tail above, which shows conspicuously as he flies. This 
species is a mouser, as appears from the following summary of the contents of 124 
stomachs : 



28 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



Summary of the Contents of 124. Stomachs of the Marsh Hawk. {From Fisher.) 

7 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 
34 stomachs contained other birds. 
57 stomachs contained mice. 
22 stomachs contained other mammals. 

7 stomachs contained reptiles. 
14 stomachs contained insects. 

1 stomach contained indeterminate matter. 

8 stomachs were empty. 

Cooper's Hawk {Accipiter cooperi). — This and the following species are the real 
culprits among the Hawks; for their sins all the members of the family have been 
made to suffer. Compared with the mouse-eating species of the genus (Buteo) 
they are long, slim birds (see plate), which, as a rule, never scream nor soar, but 
lurk quietly in ambush as becomes true hunters. Comparison of the appended 
tables with those giving the food of the so-called Chicken Hawks will readily show 
how this name has in truth been misapplied. 

The question is, how are we to distinguish these bird-killing Hawks from those 
which should be preserved. It is a difficult matter. Probably the only safe way to 
give justice to whom justice is due is to kill only the Hawks we actually see taking 
our chickens, and not murder indiscriminately every member of the Hawk family. 

Summary of the Contents of ijj Stomachs of Cooper' 's Hazvk. {From Fisher.) 

34 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 
52 stomachs contained other birds. 
1 1 stomachs contained mammals. 

1 stomach contained a frog. 
3 stomachs contained lizards. 

2 stomachs contained insects. 
39 stomachs were empty. 

Sharp-Shinned Hawk {Accipiter velox). — -This species closely resemble Cooper's 
Hawk in color and in habits. It is, however, so much smaller that it cannot prey 
to much extent on poultry but lives chiefly on small birds. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



2 9 



Summary of the Contents 0/159 Stomachs of the Sharp-Shinned Hazvk. {From Fisher.) 
6 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 
99 stomachs contained other birds. 

6 stomachs contained mice. 

5 stomachs contained insects. 
52 stomachs were empty. 

OWLS. Family Bubonidae. 

Owls, because of their nocturnal habits, prey on small rodents, themselves 
nocturnal, to an even greater extent than Hawks and are therefore more valuable. 
We continue our extracts from Dr. Fisher's work previously mentioned. 

Barred Owl: Hoot Owl {Syr'nium nebulosuin). — A common species much oftener 
heard than seen, its deep-voiced ivhoo-ivhoo-tvhoo, too-wlioo, too-whoo-at, resembling 
the distant " whistle for crossing" of a locomotive, being a familiar sound to dwellers 
near woods. 

Summary of the Contents of log Stomachs of the Barred Ozvl. {From Fisher?) 
5 stomachs contained poultry or game. 

13 stomachs contained other birds. 
46 stomachs contained mice. 

18 stomachs contained other mammals. 
4 stomachs contained frogs. 

1 stomach contained a lizard. 

2 stomachs contained fish. 

14 stomachs contained insects. 
2 stomachs contained spiders. 
9 stomachs contained crawfish. 

20 stomachs were empty. 

Short-Eared Owl {Asio accipitrinus). — The Short-Eared Owl, a species which 
lives in our marshes, is a famous destroyer of meadow mice, as may be seen from 
the appended statement : 

Summary of the Contents of the Stomachs of 101 Short-eared Owls. {From Fisher.) 
1 1 stomachs contained small birds. 
77 stomachs contained mice. 

7 stomachs contained other mammals. 
7 stomachs contained insects. 

14 stomachs were empty. 



30 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 

Long-Eared Owl (Asio wilsonianus). — Even the excellent record of the Short- 
Eared Owl is excelled by that of the present species. 

Summary of the Contents of ioy Stomachs of the Long-Eared Owl. [From Fisher.) 

i stomach contained a game bird. 
15 stomachs contained other birds. 
84 stomachs contained mice. 

5 stomachs contained mammals. 

1 stomach contained insects. 
15 stomachs were empty. 

Dr. T. H. Montgomery, Jr.'s study of the food habits of four individuals of this 
species, which roosted in an arbor vitse tree growing at his home near Philadelphia,* 
showed that the food of each individual averaged nearly two mice per day. 

Screech Owl (Mcgascops asio). — It has been shown that among our Hawks 
some species feed so largely upon insects as to be classed among the insectivorous 
birds, and so among our Owls we find that certain species subsist to a great extent 
upon insects. This will be evident on examination of the following summary of 
the food of our little Screech Owl : 

Summary of the Contents of 255 Stomachs of the Screech Owl. {From Fisher.) 

1 stomach contained poultry. 

38 stomachs contained other birds. 

91 stomachs contained mice. 

11 stomachs contained other mammals. 

2 stomachs contained lizards. 

4 stomachs contained batrachians. 

1 stomach contained fish. 
100 stomachs contained insects. 

5 stomachs contained spiders. 
9 stomachs contained crawfish. 

7 stomachs contained miscellaneous matter. 

2 stomachs contained scorpions. 

2 stomachs contained earth worms. 
43 stomachs were empty. 



* The American Naturalist, 1899, p. 563. 




SCREECH OWL 

Upper figure, gray phase ; lower figure, rufous phase of plumage 

ABOUT 9^ NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



31 



Great Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus). — While this large Owl feeds on both 
poultry and game birds it also preys upon mammals, some of which may be 
injurious. As a rule, however, the bird is so uncommon near civilization, and so 
quickly disappears with the fall of the forests that its relations to man are at the 
best indirect. 

Summary of the Contents of I2J Stomachs of the Great Horned Owl. {From Fisher.) 

31 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 
8 stomachs contained other birds. 
1 13 stomachs contained mice. 

65 stomachs contained other mammals. 
1 stomach contained a.scorpion. 
10 stomachs contained insects. 
17 stomachs were empty. 

CUCKOOS. Family Cuculidae. 

Cuckoos, of which we have two species, the Yellow-billed and Black-billed, are 
great destroyers of caterpillars. In Farmers' Bulletin No. 54 of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, Professor Beal writes of them as follows: 

" An examination of thirty-seven stomachs has shown that these Cuckoos 
are much given to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those 
covered with hair. In fact, Cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that the hairs 
pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there, so that when the stomach 
is opened and turned inside out, it appears to be lined with a thin coating of fur." 

Black-Billed Cuckoo {Coecyrjus crythrophthalmus). — "An examination of the 
stomachs of sixteen Black-billed Cuckoos, taken during the summer months, showed 
the remains of 328 caterpillars, eleven beetles, fifteen grasshoppers, sixty-three 
sawflies, three stink bugs, and four spiders. In all probability more individual! than 
these were represented, but their remains were too badly broken for recognition. 
Most of the caterpillars were hairy, and many of them belonged to a genus that 
lives in colonies and feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree. One 
stomach was filled with larvae of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus as the 
tent caterpillar, and possibly to that species. Other larvae were those of large 
moths, for which the bird seems to have a special fondness. The beetles were for 
the most part click beetles and weevils, with a few May beetles, and some others. 
The sawflies were all found in two stomachs, one of which contained no less than 
sixty in the larval stage." (Beal.) 



32 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



Yellow-Billed Cuckoo (CoccyziLs americanus). — " Of the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, 
twenty-one stomachs (collected from May to October, inclusive) were examined. 
The contents consisted of 355 caterpillars, eighteen beetles, twenty-three grass- 
hoppers, thirty-one sawfltes, fourteen bugs, six flies, and twelve spiders. As in the 
case of the Black-Billed Cuckoo, most of the caterpillars belong to hairy species, and 
many of them were of large size. One stomach contained twelve American tent 
caterpillars; another 217 fall webworms. The beetles were distributed among 
several families, but all more or less harmful to agriculture. In the same stomach 
which contained the tent caterpillars were two Colorado potato beetles ; in another 
were three goldsmith beetles and remains of several other large beetles ; besides 
ordinary grasshoppers were several katydids and three crickets. The sawflies were 
in the laval stage, in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that they are 
commonly called false caterpillars by entomologists, and, perhaps, this likeness may 
be the reason the Cuckoos eat them so freely. The bugs consisted of stink bugs 
and cicadas or dogday harvest flies, with the single exception of one wheel bug, 
which was the only useful insect eaten, unless the spiders be counted as such." 
(Beal.) 

KINGFISHER. Family Alcedinidae. 

Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyoii). — Our one species of this family is rated destructive 
by fishculturists and is denied legal protection. We must remember, however, that 
value of birds to man which cannot be expressed in dollars and cents. The King- 
fisher is far too interesting and characteristic a feature of our ponds, lakes and 
waterways to be exterminated. Admitting that certain individuals of the species 
are injurious, it does not follow that the whole race should be condemned. 

WOODPECKERS. Family Picida?. 

" Farmers are prone to look upon Woodpeckers with suspicion. When the birds 
are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking at the bark, and fresh holes are 
found in the tree, it is concluded that they are doing harm. Careful observers, 
however, have noticed that, excepting a single species, these birds rarely leave any 
important mark on a healthy tree, but that when a tree is affected by wood-boring 
larvae, and insects are accurately located, dislodged, and devoured. In case the holes 
from which the borers are taken are afterwards occupied and enlarged by colonies of 
ants, these ants in turn are drawn out and eaten." (Beal.) 

Downy Woodpecker {Dryobatcs pubesceiis). — This our smallest and most 




Upper figure, BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO 
Lower figure, YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER 

ABOUT 3-^ NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



( 

33 



common Woodpecker (see plate ), is also the most beneficial. Professor Beal* 
states that 75 per cent of its food consists of insects, including ants, beetles, bugs, 
flies, caterpillars, and grasshoppers. 

King found in the stomachs of this species wood-boring grubs, larvae, caterpillars, 
ants, beetles, and other insects. The species also feeds to a small extent on wild 
• fruits. 

Hairy Woodpecker {Dryobatcs villosus). — This, species resembles the preceding 
in color, but is longer. According to Beal 68 per cent of its food is animal matter 
21 per cent of the whole food being caterpillars. The same writer states that F. M. 
Webster saw this species peck a hole in the cocoon of a cecropia moth and devour 
its contents; only 2 out of 20 cocoons examined being uninjured. 

King found 11 larvae of wood-boring beetles and 12 geometers in the stomach of 
one Hairy Woodpecker; another contained 13 larvae of long-horned beetles and 4 
cockroach ootheca. 

Flicker : Clape : High-hole: Golden- Winged Woodpecker (Colaptes aur.atus). — 
In some States this Woodpecker is ranked as a game bird and its killing is permitted 
at certain seasons. Study of the bird's food, however, shows that it should at all 
times be protected. While feeding on wild fruits, the bird's chief economic value is 
derived from its destruction of ants which, Professor Beal states, constitute 43 per 
cent of its whole food. In each of two stomachs of the Flicker examined by this 
investigator were found over 3,000 ants; Bruner states that the stomach of a 
Flicker killed near Lincoln, Nebraska, contained nearly 1,000 Chinch bugs. 

Pileated Woodpecker: Logcock {Ceophlceus pileatus). — This fine large species 
is now confined to the most heavily forested portions of the State. The trunk of a 
white pine, fallen but as yet externally sound, which I examined in Vermont, showed 
twelve cavities made by this bird in its search for wood-boring larvae. The largest 
was twelve inches long, four inches wide, and eight inches deep. The heart of the 
tree proved to be riddled by the passages of the borers which the Woodpecker, 
when alighting on the tree, had doubtless heard at work. 

While most of the wood-borers eaten by this species are obtained from dead 
trees, the borers begin their work in living trees and any agent which tends to hold 
them in check is therefore of value to our forests. 

Red-Headed Woodpecker {Melanerpes erythrocephalus). — "The Red-Headed 
Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) is well known east of the Rocky 
Mountains, but is rather rare in New England. Unlike some other species, it pre- 

* Preliminary Report on the Food of Woodpeckers. Bull. No. 7, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 



34 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



fers fence posts and telegraph poles to trees as a foraging ground. Its food, there- 
fore, naturally differs from that of the preceding species, and consists largely of 
adult beetles and wasps which it frequently captures on the wing, after the fashion 
of flycatchers. Grasshoppers also form an important part of the food. The Red- 
head has a peculiar habit of selecting very large beetles, as shown by the presence of 
fragments of several of the largest species in the stomachs. Among the beetles 
were quite a number of predaceous ground beetles, and unfortunately some tiger 
beetles, which are useful insects. The Redhead has been accused of robbing the 
nests of other birds ; also of attacking young birds and poultry and pecking out 
their brains, but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this charge 
it is probable that the habit is rather exceptional." 

Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker {Sphyrapieus varius). — It is this species which is 
responsible for the numerous rows of holes so commonly seen in the trunks of apple 
and other trees. They are made to supply the bird with sap and when numerous 
may result in the death of the tree through girdling. The Sapsucker also feeds 
upon the insects which are attracted to the sap flowing from the punctures it has 
made, but that the bird is primarily a sap-eating rather than insect-eating species is 
apparently shown by its brushy, instead of spiny-tipped, tongue. 

The Sapsucker, then, may become an injurious species when it pays too close 
attention to one tree, riddling a section of its bark so thickly that circulation is 
destroyed and death follows. 

NIGHTHAWK AND WHIP-POOR-WILL. Family Caprimulgidae. 

Both the Nighthawk and Whip-Poor-Will feed exclusively on insects, and feeding 
at dusk and by night, when other birds are sleeping, they do unusually good service 
by devouring species which might otherwise escape. 

Nighthawk {Cliordeilcs virginianus). — The food of the Nighthawk consists of 
moths, beetles, including June bugs, ants, grasshoppers, flies, mosquitoes, and 
crickets. Mrs. Bailey mentions one bird of this species, the stomach of which 
contained 573 large winged ants, parts of 72 small winged ants, and 16 grasshoppers. 

In the south, where the Nighthawk is known as Bull-bat, it is often shot for 
so-called sport in large numbers, though the facts show that no bird is more deserv- 
ing of protection. 

Whip-poor-will {Antrostomus vociferus). — The Whip-poor-will feeds nearer the 
ground than the Nighthawk and is more often seen than heard. It eats ants, grass- 
hoppers, potato beetles. June bugs, moths, and other winged insects. 




Upper figure, PILEATED WOODPECKER 
Lower figure, DOWNY WOODPECKER 

ABOUT V 2 NATURAL SIZE. 



Upper figure, NIGHTHAWK 

U 3 NATURAL SIZE. 

LOWER FIGURE, WH I P"POO R-WI L L 
V 2 NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



35 



SWIFTS. Family Micropodidae. 

Chimney Swift (Cluztura pelagica). — No detailed study of the food of the 
Chimney Swift appears to have been made. The species, however, so far as known, 
is exclusively insectivorous and in view of its abundance is doubtless of much 
economic importance. 

HUMMINGBIRDS. Family Trochilidae. 

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird {Trochilus colubris). — The juices of plants, 
spiders, plant-lice, and other small insects constitute the food of the Humming- 
bird, which also may be of service in pollenizing the flowers it visits. 

FLYCATCHERS. Family Tyrannidae. 

As their name indicates, the birds of this family are insectivorous. The food 
habits of only four species appear to have been more than superficially studied. 

Kingbird (Tyranus tyrannus). — "In its food habits this species is largely 
insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher by nature, and takes a large part of its food 
on the wing. It docs not, however, confine itself to this method of hunting, but 
picks up some insects from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground in 
search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the Kingbird 
is that it preys largely upon honeybees; and this charge has been made both by 
professional bee keepers and others. Many observers have seen the bird at work 
near hives, and there is no reason to doubt the honesty of their testimony. One 
bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting the Kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a 
number near his hives, but when the birds' stomachs were examined by an expert 
entomologist not a trace of honeybees could be found. 

"The Biological Survey has made an examination of 28 \ stomachs collected in 
various parts of the country, but found only 14 containing remains of honeybees. 
In these 14 stomachs there were in all 50 honeybees, of which 40 were drones, 4 
were certainly workers, and the remaining 6 were too badly broken to be identified 
as to sex. 

" The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of this bird are noxious 
species, largely beetles — May beetles, click beetles (the larvae of which are known 
as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and grain, and a host of others. 
Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous elements of the food, far outnumbering 
the hive bees. During summer many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hop- 
pers and other bugs, are also eaten. Among the flies were a number of robber flies 



36 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



— insects which prey largely upon other insects, especially honeybees, and which 
have been known to commit in this way extensive depredations. It is thus evident 
that the Kingbird by destroying these flies actually does good work for the apiarist. 
Nineteen robber flies were found in the stomachs examined ; these may be consid- 
ered more than an equivalent for the four worker honeybees already mentioned. A 
few caterpillars are eaten, mostly belonging to the group commonly known as cut- 
worms, all the species of which are harmful. About 10 per cent of the food consists 
of small native fruits, comprising some twenty common species of the roadsides and 
thicket, such as dogwood berries, elder berries, and wild grapes. The bird has not 
been reported as eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubt- 
ful if- this is ever the case, for cherries and blackberries are the only ones that might 
have come from cultivated places, and they were found in but few stomachs. 

" Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of the King- 
bird — (i) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly injurious species; (2) 
that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees is much less prevalent than has 
been supposed, and probably does not result in any great damage ; and (3) that the 
vegetable food consists almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. 
These facts, taken in connection with its well-known enmity for Hawks and Crows, 
entitle the Kingbird to a place among the most desirable birds of the orchard or 
garden." (Beal.) 

Phoebe (Sayoruis fihoebe). — " The Phoebe subsists almost exclusively upon 
insects, most of which are caught upon the wing. An examination of 80 stomachs 
showed that over 93 per cent of the year's food consists of insects and spiders, 
while wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to various 
species and include many click beetles, May beetles, and weevils. Grasshoppers in 
their season are eaten to a considerable extent, while wasps of various species, many 
flies of species that annoy cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten. * * * 

" There is hardly a more useful species about the farm and it should receive 
every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is unnecessary, as it usually prefers 
a more open situation, like a shed or nook under the eaves, but it should be 
protected from cats and other marauders." (Beal.) 

Wood Pewee {Contopus vircns). — "Of forty-one specimens examined, eighteen 
had eaten 66 small beetles, among them 7 metallic-green beetles and several lamelli- 
corns ; fourteen, 41 dipterous insects, among them 12 large crane-flies. * * * 

" I have seen one Wood Pewee capture and feed to its young, which had recently 
left the nest, 41 insects in the course of 41 minutes. Several of these insects were 
moths." (King.) 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



37 



Least Flycatcher: Chebec (Empidonax minimus). — "Of twenty-three speci- 
mens examined ten had eaten 30 beetles — among them 2 squash beetles (Diabrothca 
vittata), a lady-bird and 2 weevils; four, 18 dipterous insects; one, 2 small heterop- 
terous insects, equal in size to Chinch bug; four, 39 hymenopterous insects, 2 
small ichneumon flies and 37 winged-ants ; two, 3 caterpillars ; one, a moth ; two, 
4 small dragon-flies ; and one, a small spider." (King.) 

LARKS. Family Alaudidae. 

Horned Lark (Olocoris alpestris). — The Horned Larks, including this, the winter 
visitant form and the Prairie Horned Lark (O. a. praticold), which breeds throughout 
the central portion of the State, are of economic value as weed-seed eaters ; while 
the latter also eats various species of insects. No detailed study of their food has 
been published. 

CROWS and JAYS. Family Corvidae. 

To the members of this family are attributed numerous misdeeds, and although 
much attention has been given to their food habits, their injurious habits are said to 
be so nearly balanced by beneficial ones that it is difficult to determine which 
outweighs the other. 

Crow {Corvus americanus). — " That he [the Crow] does pull up sprouting corn, 
destroy chickens, and rob the nests of small birds has been repeatedly proved. Nor 
are these all of his sins. He is known to eat frogs, toads, salamanders, and some 
small snakes, all harmless creatures that do some good by eating insects. With so 
many charges against him, it may be well to show why he should not be utterly 
condemned. 

" The examination of a large number of stomachs, while confirming all the fore- 
going accusations, has thrown upon the subject a light somewhat different from 
that derived solely from field observation. It shows that the birds-nesting habit, 
as in the case of the Jay, is not so universal as has been supposed ; and that, so far 
from being a habitual nest robber, the Crow only occasionally indulges in that rep- 
rehensible practice. The same is true in regard to destroying chickens, for he is 
able to carry off none but the very young ones, and his opportunities for capturing 
them are somewhat limited. Neither are many toads or frogs eaten, and as frogs 
are of no great practical value, their destruction is not a serious matter; but toads 
are very useful, and their consumption, so far as it goes, must be counted against 
the Crow. Turtles, crayfishes, and snails, of which he eats quite a large number, 
may be considered neutral, while mice may be counted to his credit. 



38 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 

"In his food, however, the Crow makes amends for his sins in the rest of his 
dietary, although even here the first item is against him. Predaceous beetles are 
eaten in some numbers throughout the season, but the number is not great. May 
beetles, 'dor-bug,' or June bugs, and others of the same family, constitute the prin- 
cipal food during spring and early summer, and are fed to the young in immense 
quantities. Other beetles, nearly all of a noxious character, are eaten to a consider- 
able extent. Grasshoppers are first taken in May, but not in large numbers until 
August, when, as might be expected, they form the leading article of diet, showing 
that the Crow is no exception to the general rule that most birds subsist, to a large 
extent, upon grasshoppers in the month of August. Many bugs, some caterpillars, 
mostly cutworms, and some spiders, are also eaten — all of them either harmful or 
neutral in their economic relations. Of the insect diet Mr. E. A. Schwarz says: 
' The facts, on the whole, speak overwhelmingly in favor of the Crow.' 

" Probably the most important item in the vegetable food is corn, and by pulling 
the newly sprouted seeds the bird' renders himself extremely obnoxious. Observa- 
tions and experiments with tame Crows show that hard, dry corn is never eaten if 
anything else is to be had, and if fed to nestlings it is soon disgorged. The reason 
Crows resort to newly planted fields is that the kernels of corn are softened by the 
moisture of the earth, and probably become more palatable in the process of germi- 
nation, which changes the starch of the grain to sugar. The fact, however, remains 
that the Crows eat corn extensively only when it has been softened by germination 
or partial decay, or before it is ripe and still ' in milk.' Experience has shown that 
they may be prevented from pulling up young corn by tarring the seed, which not 
only saves the corn but forces them to turn their attention to insects. If they 
persist in eating green corn it is not easy to prevent the damage ; but no details 
of extensive injury in this way have yet been presented, and it is probable that no 
great harm has been done. 

"Crows eat fruit to some extent, but confine themselves for the most part to 
wild species, such as dogwood, sour gum, and seeds of the different kinds of sumac. 
They have also a habit of sampling almost everything which appears eatable, 
especially when food is scarce. For example, they eat frozen apples found on the 
trees in winter, or pumpkins, turnips, and potatoes which have been overlooked or 
neglected ; even mushrooms are sometimes taken, probably in default of something 
better. 

" In estimating the economic status of the Crow, it must be acknowledged that 
he does some damage, but, on the other hand, he should receive much credit for the 
insects which he destroys. In the more thickly settled parts of the country the 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



39 



Crow probably does more good than harm, at least when ordinary precautions are 
taken to protect young poultry and newly planted corn against his depredations. 
If, however, corn is planted with no provision against possible marauders, if hens 
and turkeys are allowed to nest and to roam with their broods at a distance from 
farm buildings, losses must be expected." 

While, from the nature of the case, birds' eggs and young birds can form but a 
small portion of the annual food-supply of the Crow, I believe it to be indisputable 
that during the nesting season they constitute a large percentage of the Crow's 
food. Nest-robbing is not occasional but is the characteristic habit of the Crow. 
Not only do they eat eggs and young birds, but they feed their offspring on them. 
Doubtless few Crows live through May and June without preying on smaller birds 
and the possibilities are that almost any one of the birds destroyed (either in the 
egg or out of it) is of greater economic value than the Crow. The Crow, therefore, 
in addition to the direct damage it may do our crops, robs us of the services of 
birds far more desirable than itself. Even if the Crow, aside from its cannibal-like 
propensities, was wholly beneficial, it would not, it seems to me, render us as great a 
service as would have been performed by the birds it destroys. In short, in my 
opinion, the Crow is one of the worst enemies of our small insectivorous and seed- 
eating birds, and as such it is undeserving of protection. 

Blue Jay {Cyanositta cristata). — " The Blue Jay is a common bird of the United 
States east of the Great Plains, and remains throughout the year in most of its 
range, although its numbers are somewhat reduced in winter in the Northern States. 
During spring and summer the Jay is forced to become an industrious hunter for 
insects, and is not so conspicuous a feature of the landscape as when it roams the 
country at will after the cares of the nesting season are over. 

" Ornithologists and field observers in general declare that a considerable portion 
of its food in spring and early summer consists of the eggs and young of small 
birds, and some farmers accuse it of stealing corn to an injurious extent in the fall. 
While there may be some truth in these accusations, they have almost certainly 
been exaggerated. No doubt many Jays have been observed robbing nests of other 
birds, but thousands have been seen that were not so engaged. 

" In an investigation of the food of the Blue Jay 292 stomachs were examined 
which showed that animal matter comprised 24$ and vegetable matter 76% of the 
bird's diet. So much has been said about the nest-robbing habits of the Jay that 
special search was made for traces of birds or birds' eggs in the stomachs, with the 
result that shells of small birds' eggs were found in three and the remains of young 
birds in only two stomachs. Such negative evidence is not sufficient to controvert 



4-0 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



the great mass of testimony on this point, but it shows that the habit is not so 
prevalent as has been believed. Besides birds and their eggs, the Jay eats mice, 
fish, salamanders, caterpillars, snails, and crustaceans, which altogether constitute 
but little more than I per cent of its diet. The insect food is made up of beetles, 
grasshoppers, caterpillars, and a few species of other orders, all noxious, except-some 
2>y2% of predaceous beetles. Thus something more than 19% of the whole food 
consists of harmful insects. In August the Jay, like many other birds, turns its 
attention to grasshoppers, which constitute nearly one-fifth of its food during that 
month. At this time, also, most of the other noxious insects, including caterpillars, 
are consumed, though the beetles are chiefly eaten in spring. 

" The vegetable food is quite varied, but the item of most interest is grain. 
Corn was found in 70 stomachs, wheat in 8, and oats in 2, all constituting ig% of the 
total food. Corn is evidently the favorite grain, but a closer inspection of the rec- 
ord shows that the greater part was eaten during the first five months of the yeaT, 
and that very little was taken after May, even in harvest time, when it is abundant. 
This indicates that most of the corn is gleaned from the fields after harvest, except 
what is stolen from the cribs or gathered in May at planting time. 

" The Jay's favorite food is mast (i. e., acorns, chestnuts, chinquapins, etc.), which 
was found in i58~of the 292 stomachs and amounted to more than 42% of the whole 
food. In September corn formed 15 and mast 35$, while in October, November and 
December corn dropped to an almost inappreciable quantity, and mast amounted to 
64, 82 and 83$, respectively. And yet in these months corn is abundant and every- 
where accessible. The other elements of food consist of a few seeds and wild 
fruits, among which grapes and blackberries predominate. 

" The results of the stomach examination show, (1) that the Jay eats many nox- 
ious insects ; (2) that its habit or robbing the nests of other birds is much less com- 
mon than has been asserted ; and (3) that it does little harm to agriculture, since all 
but a small amount of the corn eaten is waste grain." (Beal.) 

Personally, my attitude toward the Jay is that which I hold in regard to the 
Crow. It is not unusual for the Jay to eat birds' eggs, and in so doing he does an 
injury which the good deeds to his credit are far from balancing. As with the 
Crow, any one of the insect or seed-eating birds killed by a Jay would doubtless 
have been more desirable than the Jay itself, and where a single Jay, as often 
happens, destroys a whole nestful of eggs it becomes a positively injurious species. 
I believe, therefore, that the Blue Jay is no more deserving of protection than is the 
Crow. Both birds, however, are far too interesting to be exterminated, but no 
steps should be taken which will result in their increase. Belonging to a family 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



41 



noted for the intelligence and adaptability of its members, Crows and Jays can 
adjust themselves to the changes incident to civilization far more readily than many 
of the birds which become their victims, and, in cases of this kind, man should help 
to restore nature's balance by according protection to the weaker species ; not to 
their enemies. 

STARLINGS. Family Sturnidae. 

Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). — -The Starling was first successfully introduced into 
this country by Mr. Eugene Schieffelin, under whose direction 80 birds were released 
in Central Park, New York City, March 6, 1890; and 40 more on April 25, 1891. 
There was evidently room in this new environment for these birds for they so 
thrived that their descendants are now numbered by thousands ; flocks containing 
several hundred being frequently seen in the upper part of New York City and east- 
ward alongthe sound. 

The Starling, therefore, is now firmly established in this country, and if it 
continues to multiply at the rate already shown to be possible, it will in compara- 
tively few years become one of our most abundant birds. 

Whether this species will prove to be beneficial or injurious it is difficult to 
surmise. In its own habitat it is said to be on the whole economically valuable; 
but under wholly new surroundings, where its relations to other species are as yet 
undetermined, one cannot predict what its place in nature will be. There can be 
no question, however, that the present is the time to give this matter serious 
consideration. In a few years Starlings will be as far beyond control as English 
Sparrows are now. 

BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. Family Icteridae. 

In this family are included several species reputed to be the worst enemies, 
among birds, to the farmer. The Blackbirds, of several species, are especially 
condemned as grain destroyers. Raising only one brood they begin to flock early 
in July and before the grain is harvested have gathered in enormous bodies 
which unquestionably do much damage. It is, therefore, not without cause that 
our law refuses Blackbirds protection at all seasons. The question is, shall we go 
further than this? Shall we attempt to reduce the numbers of these birds? On 
this point Professor Beal writes : * 

" In a treatise on the destructiveness of grain-eating birds it is natural that the 
reader should expect at least a suggestion of a remedy. Unfortunately it is much 



*Birds that Injure Grain, Yearbook cf the Dept. of Agriculture, 1897, p. 353. 



42 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



easier to point out the evil than to prescribe the cure. Stomach investigation shows 
conclusively that birds do not subsist upon grain alone, even at times when it is 
possible to obtain it. Moreover, the greatest amount of grain is not eaten at harvest 
time, but during the winter months, when other food is scarce and waste kernels can 
be picked up in the fields. If any kind of grain is preferred by a certain species, 
we should expect the bird to subsist upon that grain almost exclusively when it can 
be obtained, that is, at harvest time. That this is not the case is shown by the fact 
that many birds of the same species have been shot at the same time in a grainfield, 
and while some stomachs were full of grain, others were only partly filled, and still 
others were wholly filled with other food. So many cases of this kind have 
occurred that it seems practically certain that few birds willingly subsist exclusively 
upon any kind of grain for a considerable length of time. With many species this 
is in notable contrast to their marked fondness for the seeds of certain useless 
plants, upon which at some seasons they subsist almost entirely. 

" If it be admitted that birds do not as a rule display an inordinate appetite for 
grain, the question naturally arises: What is the cause of the tremendous ravages 
they sometimes commit ? Both stomach examination and field observation point 
to the same answer: Too many birds of the same or closely allied species are 
gathered together within a limited area. 

"As already pointed out, the Upper Mississippi region presents such excep- 
tionally favorable breeding grounds for Blackbirds, especially the Redwing and 
Yellowhead, that they swarm there in countless numbers. Settlement and cultiva- 
tion have not yet encroached materially upon their haunts, but have added a source 
of food, which, coming before the great natural supply, has served to render the 
race more vigorous and prolific. 

" An attempt to exterminate these species would be not only ill-advised but 
hopeless. States have offered bounties for their destruction without perceptibly 
thinning their ranks. Is there, then, any remedy for the evil? The writer is forced 
to confess that he has none to suggest, except in the case of Crows and Blackbirds 
that pull up sprouting corn. This can be prevented by thoroughly tarring the seed, 
which, if properly done, neither injures its vitality nor prevents the use of 
machinery in planting. There is, however, some hope for the future, though per- 
haps a distant one. While the advance of civilization has thus far not affected 
these birds or their haunts, the time must surely come when it will. Increased 
density of population will broaden the area of cultivation, and this in time must 
lead to the draining of the smaller marshes and ponds, thus turning over to agricul- 
ture much land that has heretofore been worse than waste, since it has served as a 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



43 



breeding ground for the birds that have destroyed the crops. With the breeding 
places more restricted and an environment otherwise changed by increased popula- 
tion, the number of birds must surely decrease, and in time the proper equilibrium 
will be restored. In the meantime, it behooves the farmer to apply such remedies 
as the exigencies of the case suggest, and where these gregarious species are over- 
abundant it might be well to exempt them from the general protective laws, in 
order that each landholder may be free to protect himself as best he can." 

Crow Blackbird : Purple Grackle and Bronzed Grackle {Quiscalus quiscula 
et ivncus.) — "Crow Blackbirds are fond of grain, and being of good size and 
abundant, evidently have the power to do great harm. Moreover, the examination 
of more than 2,000 of their stomachs shows that grain formed 45 per cent of the 
food of the year, and that corn alone constitutes 35 per cent. From this it might 
be expected that they would attract much attention from grain growers, and such is 
the case. Hundreds of communications have been received testifying to their 
destructiveness ; yet many of these acknowledge the fact that Blackbirds eat a large 
quantity of insects, especially during the breeding season, and that many insects are 
fed to the young. This last is also borne out by stomach examination. A review 
of the yearly diet shows that the greater part of the corn eaten is taken during the 
fall and winter months. That eaten in winter and early spring (March and April), 
except the small quantity taken from corncribs, must be waste grain, or. picked up 
in places where grain is left in the shock for a long time. No one will begrudge the 
birds the corn gathered from the hog lot or about the cattle crib, but when they 
attack the ripening grain in September it is a different story, and in cases where the 
birds are so abundant that they take a large part of the crop, it will be difficult to 
persuade the unfortunate farmer that they did enough good earlier in the season to 
pay for this loss. There can be no doubt that in many parts of the country these 
birds are too numerous for the farmer to realize the best results from their serv- 
ices." (Beal.) 

Red-winged Blackbird {Agelauis phcenicens). — " In investigating the food habits 
of the Red-wing over 700 stomachs were examined. These were collected in every 
month of the year, and show that a little more than 13 per cent of the year's food 
is grain. This is a remarkably small percentage when it is considered that this bird 
has been the subject of more complaints on the score of grain eating than any other 
species. In order to understand thoroughly the grain-eating propensities of the 
Red-wing, a special study of its food for the five months from May to September, 
inclusive, has been made. Of the stomachs taken in May, 46 per cent contained 
grain. This percentage falls to 11 in June and then rises -in July and culminates in 



44 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



August at 72, after which it decreases rapidly. The average for the five months is 
46 per cent, that is, in every 100 birds taken 46 have eaten grain. If now we 
examine the grain-eating record as exhibited by the quantity of that food the 
results are quite different. In May grain constitutes 21 per cent of the food by 
bulk; in June it decreases to 5 per cent; in July it rises to its maximum of 42 per 
cent ; in August it falls off slightly, after which it rapidly decreases and disappears. 
The average consumption of grain for the five months is 25 per cent of the whole 
food. Again, if the two months of July and August are considered alone, it is 
found that out of every 100 birds 68 have eaten grain, but that the grain constitutes 
only 40 per cent of the total food for the two months. * * * 

" Of the different kinds of cereals, oats is the favorite with the Red-wings, con- 
stituting more than half of the grain eaten. Corn stands next in order, and wheat 
last of all. At the same time many noxious insects and much weed seed are 
destroyed. The former amounts to over 26 per cent of the year's food, the latter 
to nearly 57 per cent. Seeds of noxious weeds, eked out by grain found scattered 
in the fields, form the almost exclusive diet of these birds during the colder 
months. Even in August, when the destruction of grain is at its height, weed seed 
forms more than 30 per cent of the food." (Beal.) 

Rusty Blackbird {Scolecopkagus carolinus). — " The Rusty Grackle {Scolecophagus 
carolinns) of the eastern United States and Brewer's Blackbird (S. cyanocephalns) of 
the west are similar birds, whose habits of associating in large flocks would indicate 
that they could do great damage to grain fields if they chose to visit them for food. 
Stomach examinations show that the eastern bird lives to a great extent upon ani- 
mal substances, principally insects, and as the species retires to the extreme northern 
edge of the country and beyond to breed, it does not appear in most of the grain- 
raising States until the crops of wheat and oats have been harvested. It feeds to 
some extent on corn, but the damage appears to be slight. Brewer's Blackbird, on 
the contrary, breeds over the greater part of its range and only retires from the 
northern part during a short time in winter. It is more of a grain eater than the 
Rusty Grackle and does considerable damage in wheat-growing areas in the far west. 
Like the Rusty Grackle, it is a great consumer of insects." (Beal.) 

Cowbird {Malothrus atcr). — This bird is said not to be seriously injurious to 
grain, but its habit of laying in the nests of smaller and much more valuable species, 
the young of which are, in consequence, often starved, should be sufficient to war- 
rant us in denying it legal protection. 

Bobolink [Dolichonyx oryzivorus). — This species furnishes an illustration of a 
bird which is beneficial in one locality and harmful in another. While with us in 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



45 



its breeding season the Bobolink is an undeniably useful bird, feeding on insects and 
weed seeds, but during its migrations in August and September, when it visits the 
rice-fields of South Carolina and Georgia, it is quite as undeniably injurious. Admit- 
ting that the injury it does in the south is in excess of the good it does in the 
north, we fear that we are not as yet sufficiently altruistic to destroy this well-loved 
bird for the benefit of those whom it harms., and for the present, therefore, each 
State will doubtless deal with its birds without relation to their status in other 
parts of their range. 

Baltimore Oriole: Hangbird (Icterus galbuld). — "Observation both in the field 
and laboratory shows that caterpillars constitute the largest item of its fare. In 113 
stomachs they formed 34 per cent of the food, and are eaten regularly in varying 
quantities during all the months in which the bird remains in this country, although 
fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit is also taken. The other insects consist 
of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers, and some spiders. The beetles are prin- 
cipally click beetles, the larvae of which are among the most destructive insects 
known ; and the bugs include plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but so small 
and obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds." (Beal.) 

In spite of this good record Orioles are known to do much damage to grapes in 
the latter part of August by puncturing one or more grapes in a bunch, thereby 
decreasing their market value. As has been previously suggested, however, the 
vineyards can be protected from them by the discharge of unshotted guns, and as 
comparatively few birds of this species remain north of the latitude of New York 
after the first week in September, it would clearly be undesirable to kill so useful 
and beautiful a bird when by the exercise of a little vigilance for a comparatively 
short period the harm it might do may be prevented. 

Meadowlarks {Sturnella magna). — "The Meadowlark is almost wholly bene- 
ficial, although a few complaints have been made that it pulls sprouting grain, and 
one farmer claims that it eats clover seed. As a rule, however, it is looked upon 
with favor and is not disturbed. 

" In the 238 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) constituted 
73 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 27 per cent. As would naturally 
be supposed, the insects were ground species, such as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers 
and caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps and spiders. A number of the stomachs 
were taken from birds that had been killed when the ground was covered with snow, 
but still they contained a large percentage of insects, showing the bird's skill in 
finding proper food under adverse circumstances. 

" Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most important, 



46 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 

constituting 29 per cent of the entire year's food and 69 per cent of the food in 
August. It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon this point, but it can readily be 
seen what an effect a number of these birds must have on a field of grass in the 
height of the grasshopper season. Of the 238 stomachs collected at all seasons of 
the year, 178, or more than two-thirds, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one 
was filled with fragments of 37 of these insects. This seems to show conclusively 
that grasshoppers are preferred and are eaten whenever they can be procured. The 
great number taken in August is especially noticeable. This is essentially the grass- 
hopper month, i. e., the month when grasshoppers reach their maximum abundance ; 
and the stomach examination has shown that a large number of birds resort to this 
diet in August, no matter what may be the food during the rest of the year. 

" Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the Meadow- 
lark's food, amounting to nearly 21 per cent, of which about one-third are preda- 
ceous ground beetles. The others are all harmful species, and when it is considered 
that the bird feeds exclusively on the ground, it seems remarkable that so few useful 
ground beetles are eaten. Many of them have a disgusting odor, and possibly this 
may occasionally save them from destruction by birds, especially when other food 
is abundant. Caterpillars, too, form a very constant element, and in May constitute 
over 28 per cent of the whole food. May is the month when the dreaded cut worm 
begins its deadly career, and then the bird does some of its best work. Most of 
these caterpillars are ground feeders, and are overlooked by birds which habitually 
frequent trees ; but the Meadowlark finds them and devours them by thousands. 
The remainder of the insect food is made up of a few ants, wasps and spiders, with 
a few bugs, including some chinch bugs. 

"The vegetable food consists of grain, weed, and other hard seeds ; grain in gen- 
eral amounts to 14, and weed and other seeds to 12 per cent. The grain, principally 
corn, is mostly eaten in winter and early spring, and must be, therefore, simply 
waste kernels ; only a trifle is consumed in summer and autumn, when it is most 
plentiful. No trace of sprouting grain was discovered. Clover seed was found in 
only six stomachs, and but little in each. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barn 
grass, and smartweed, are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during the 
rest of the year are replaced by insects. 

" Briefly stated, more than half of the Meadowlark's food consists of harmful 
insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds or waste grain, and 
the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neutral insects and spiders. A strong 
point in the bird's favor is that, although naturally an insect eater, it is able to sub- 
sist on vegetable food, and, consequently, is not forced to migrate in cold weather 




Upper figure, TREE SPARROW 
Lower figure, SNOWFLAKE 

ABOUT ?^ NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



47 



any farther than is necessary to find ground free from snow. This explains why it 
remains for the most part in the United States during winter, and moves northward 
as soon as the snow disappears from its usual haunts. 

" There is one danger to which the Meadowlark is exposed. As its flesh is 
highly esteemed the bird is often shot for the table, but it is entitled to all possible 
protection, and to slaughter it for game is the least profitable way to utilize a valu- 
ble species." (Beal.) 

SPARROWS AND FINCHES. Family Fringillidae. 

" While Sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means confine them- 
selves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and especially in the breeding 
season, they eat many insects, and probably feed their young largely upon the same 
food. An examination of the stomachs of three species — the Song Sparrow 
(Melospiza), Chipping Sparrow {Spizella socialis), and the Field Sparrow (Spizella 
pusilla), shows that one-third of the food consists of insects, comprising many 
injurious beetles, such as snout-beetles or weevils, and leaf-beetles. Many grasshop- 
pers are eaten, and in the case of the Chipping Sparrow these insects form one- 
eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would seem to be rather large morsels, but the 
bird probably confines itself to the smaller species ; indeed, this is indicated by the 
fact that the greatest amount (over 36$) is eaten in June, when the larger species 
are still young and the small species most numerous. Besides the insects already 
mentioned, many wasps and bugs are taken. Predaceous and parasitic hymenop- 
tera and predaceous beetles, all useful insects, are eaten only to a slight extent, so 
as a whole the Sparrows' insect diet may be considered beneficial. 

" Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds. This might 
seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon grain, but the stomachs 
examined show only one kind — oats — and but little of that. The great bulk of 
the food is made up of grass and weed seed, which form almost the entire diet 
during the winter, and the amount consumed is immense." (Beal.) 

In his important paper on "The Relations of Sparrows to Agriculture," * Dr. 
Judd remarks: "It is evident that a group of birds so abundant, so widely dis- 
tributed, and in such constant association with farms and gardens, must play an 
important part in rural economy, and that a thorough investigation of their food 
habits should be useful. The results of such an investigation are embodied in the 
present paper and amply demonstrate the value of these birds to the agriculturist — 



*BuIl. 15, Div. Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901, p. 7. 



48 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



a value greater than that of any other group of birds whose economic status has 
thus far been investigated. The native Sparrows contrast markedly in this respect 
with the introduced English Sparrow, the pernicious habits of which have formed 
the subject of a special report, and are briefly treated in this bulletin for purpose of 
comparison (see p. 92). This naturalized Sparrow is a pest wherever it is found, 
while the native Sparrows are well worthy of protection and encouragement." 

Snowflake : Snowbunting {Passerina nivalis). — " From the examination of the 
stomachs collected, it would appear that the Snowflake derives fully half its subsist- 
ence from two weeds — amaranth and ragweed, and that it does not to any great 
extent feed on the seeds of crab-grass, pigeon-grass, or other grasses, though it 
should be stated that Mcllwraith reports it as eating the seeds of broom sedge 
{Andropogon scoparins). Only one per cent of the food contained in the 46 
stomachs examined was grass seed. But in addition to the fact that the number 
of stomachs examined was too small to permit final conclusions to be drawn, for 
other reasons this should not be taken as showing a distaste for grass seed. The 
taste for similar food, as shown by the partiality of the birds for grain, and the 
quantity of grass seed eaten by the closely allied, more southerly ranging Long- 
spurs, indicate that the abstinence of the Snowflake from this food is due to neces- 
sity and not choice. We must remember that the grass seed, which falls to the 
ground when ripe instead of clinging to the stalk, as do many of the seeds of 
amaranth, lamb's-quarters, and ragweed, is probably buried under the snow during 
most of the time the Snowflakes are here. The amaranth is tall and its seeds are 
particularly clinging, and after very heavy snowfalls it is probably the most avail- 
able food supply the Snowflakes have. Its seeds form half the food found in the 
stomachs collected in February and March, some of which contained 500 to 1,500 
each. Such a wholesale destruction of the seeds of this rank weed as is thus indi- 
cated is not accomplished by any other bird whose food habits have thus far been 
investigated. With most species of seed-eating birds amaranth is by no means an 
important article of diet. 

" On account of its work as a good weed destroyer and the apparent absence of 
any noticeable detrimental food habits, the Snowflake seems to deserve high com- 
mendation, and should receive careful protection. Feeding in latitudes that have 
been deserted by most other weed-destroying birds, these birds render a distinct 
and most effective service to the northern farmer. And to this should be added 
that it is their habit, and that of their congeners, the Longspurs, to feed far out in 
the open plains without regard to the presence of trees or shrubs. In this way they 
accomplish work that would otherwise be left undone; for most of the other mem- 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



49 



bers of the Sparrow family that subsist entirely, or nearly so, on weed seed in the 
winter will not be found far from convenient shelter to which they can repair in case 
of danger." (Judd.) 

In spite of the great economic value, Snowflakes are killed in great numbers to 
be sold for food under the name of " Reedbirds." On August 30, 1902, 78,000 odd 
birds of this species were found in cold storage warehouses in New York City, 
where they were held in defiance of the State law. 

Purple Finch {Carpodacus purpureas). — The Purple Finch at certain seasons 
feeds largely on buds and blossoms and is said to damage fruit trees in this manner. 
No thorough study of the food habits of the bird appears to have been made, and 
until our knowledge of its economic status rests on sound basis we may well with- 
hold judgment concerning its economic value. In the meantime we may remember 
how comparatively few blossoms, under the most favorable conditions, bring forth 
mature fruit, and consequently how many can be spared without affecting the yield 
of a tree. 

Due consideration should also be given to the fact that the Purple Finch is 
known to feed on plant lice. (See King.) 

American Goldfinch : Thistle Bird {Astragalinus tristis). — " The Goldfinch, or 
Wild Canary, is as useful as it is beautiful, and as a weed destroyer has no equals. 
It confines its attention very largely to one family of plants, the compositae, and it 
is especially fond of thistles, wild lettuce, wild sunflower, and ragweed. It is so 
often seen on thistles, both Canada and bull thistles, that it is commonly known as 
the Thistle bird. Near Washington, D. C, a flock of a dozen birds were seen during 
the latter part of August feeding on sunflowers that had escaped from cultivation, 
and in the central and western States the Goldfinches do much good by eating the 
seeds of wild sunflowers and other closely related weeds. They have also been seen 
feeding upon wild lettuce {Lactuca spicatd), and probably eat prickly lettuce {Lactuca 
scariola), which has proved the most rapidly spreading weed ever introduced into 
this country, but as yet no actual observations as to the latter food habit have been 
made. Stomachs collected in August were filled with seed of compositae, mostly 
sunflowers (various species of Helianthus) and thistles {Cardans lanceolatus and 
other species). 

"At Burlington, Iowa, during July and August, Mr. Paul Bartsch found Gold- 
finches feeding exclusively upon bull thistle {Car duns lanceolatus). He was able to 
approach within a few feet of several birds while thus engaged, and noticed that the 
seeds or akenes were bitten off and swallowed, while the plumes or pappus floated 
away. When there was no wind, the pappus often failed to fly away, and clung to 



50 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



the birds, almost burying them with down. A dozen of the birds were killed and 
their gizzards and gullets were found literally crammed with thistle seeds. At Sing 
Sing, N. Y., Goldfinches have been seen eating the seeds of the Scotch thistle 
{Onopordon acanthiuin) and boneset {Eiipatorium perfoliatuni). Cone flowers (Rud- 
beckia Jiirtd), prairie sunflowers {Gaillardid), evening primroses, catnip, elephant's 
foot (Elcp/iantopiis sp.), and mullein also form part of their food, and late in the 
season they turn their attention to ragweed and consume great quantities, of the 
seeds of this troublesome species. In winter and spring large flocks feed to some 
extent upon the seeds of conifers and catkin-bearing trees, such as the sycamore and 
birch. In destroying the seeds of the gray birch (Bctula populifolici) on the edge of 
the grass lands they do some good, for this tree has a habit of seeding adjacent 
pastures, which then grow into a thicket of young saplings." (Beal.) 

Chipping Sparrow {Spied/a socialis). — Professor Weed writes of a family of 
Chipping Sparrows, which he watched on June 22, from 3:40 A. M. to 7:50 P. M. : 
" During this busy day the parent birds had made almost two hundred visits to the 
nest, bringing food nearly every time, though some of the trips seemed to be made 
to furnish grit for the grinding of the food. There was no long interval when 
they were at work, the longest period between these visits having been twenty-seven 
minutes. Soft-bodied caterpillars were the most abundant elements of food, but 
crickets and crane-flies were also seen, and doubtless a great variety of insects were 
taken." 

Tree Sparrow {Spizella monticold). — "Examination of many stomachs shows 
that in winter the Tree Sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds ; and probably 
each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an article contributed 
to the New York Tribune in 1881 the writer estimated the amount of weed seed 
annually destroyed by these birds in the State of Iowa. Upon the basis of one- 
fourth of an ounce eaten daily by each bird, and supposing that the birds averaged 
ten to each square mile, and that they remain in their winter range two hundred 
days, we shall have a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons, of weed seed consumed 
by this one species in a single season. Large as these figures may seem, they cer- 
tainly fall far short of the reality. The estimate of ten birds to a square mile is 
much within the truth, for the Tree Sparrow is certainly more abundant than this in 
winter in Massachusetts, where the food supply is less than in the western States, 
and I have known places in Iowa where several thousand could be seen within the 
space of a few acres. This estimate, moreover, is for a single species, while, as a 
matter of fact, there are at least half a dozen birds (not all Sparrows) that habitually 
feed on these seeds during winter." (Beal.) 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



51 



Song Sparrow {Melospiza meloda). — " Taking the food habits of the Song Spar- 
row as a whole, it will be readily seen that this bird does much more good than 
harm and is worthy of protection and encouragement. Only two per cent of the 
food consists of useful insects, while 18 per cent is composed of injurious insects; 
and grain, largely waste, amounts to 4 per cent, while the seeds of various species 
of weeds constitute 50 per cent." (Judd.) 

Rose-breasted Grosbeak {Zamelodia ludoviciand). — " When the Colorado potato 
beetle first swept over the land, and naturalists and farmers were anxious to discover 
whether or not there were any enemies which would prey upon the pests, the Gros- 
beak was almost the only bird seen to eat the beetles. Further observation con- 
firmed the fact, and there can be no reasonable doubt that where the bird is 
abundant it has contributed very much to the abatement of the pest, which has 
been noted during the last decade. But this is not the only good the bird does, for 
many other noxious insects besides the potato beetle are also eaten. • 

" The vegetable food of the Grosbeak consists of buds and blossoms of forest 
trees and seeds, but the only damage of which it has been accused is the stealing 
of green peas. The writer has observed it eating peas and has examined the 
stomachs of several that had been killed in the very act. The stomachs contained a 
few peas and enough potato beetles, old and young, as well as other harmful insects, 
to pay for all the peas the birds would be likely to eat in a whole season. The 
garden where this took place adjoined a small potato field which earlier in the 
season had been so badly infested with beetles that vines were completely riddled. 
The Grosbeaks visited the field every day, and finally brought their fledged young. 
The young birds stood in a row on the topmost rail of a fence and were fed with 
the beetles which their parents gathered. When a careful inspection was made a 
few days later, not a beetle, old or young, could be found ; the birds had swept 
them from the field and saved the potatoes." (Beal.) 

English Sparrow : House Sparrow {Passer domesticus). — The economic status 
of the English Sparrow has been more discussed than that of any other bird. 
There is no doubt, however, that the Sparrow is an undesirable bird. While the 
grounds for objection to its presence in the city may be limited to its noisiness and 
filth-producing habits, in the country more serious reasons for condemning it as 
undesirable can be given. It is not only destructive to fruit and grain, but it occu- 
pies feeding places formerly inhabited by native, and, economically, more desirable 
birds. It does not follow that through pure aggressiveness the Sparrow expels from 
their homes our Wrens, Bluebirds, Swallows and Martins. The Sparrow's success 
in replacing these birds is due primarily to its non-migratory habits. Permanently 



52 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



resident at or near one place it takes possession of the available nesting sites before 
our migratory native birds return from the south, and once established the Sparrow 
is a difficult bird to dislodge. Surprisingly fecund, it begins to breed in March, at 
the first indication of warm weather, and has been known to rear six broods in a 
season. At this rate it has been estimated * that should the progeny of one pair 
of Sparrows all live and breed, at the end of ten years they would amount to 
275,716,983,698 Sparrows. 

The growing use of self-propelling vehicles in our cities increases the seriousness 
of the Sparrow question. Within a few decades it is probable that comparatively 
few horses will be used in our larger towns and cities. There has been a decrease of 
over 8,000 horses, or about 11 per cent, in the horse- population of New York City in 
the past six years. 

As the horses diminish in numbers there will be a corresponding diminution in 
the food supply of the Sparrows. Eventually they will exist in our cities, except 
in the parks, only in small numbers. 

We cannot hope that this loss of food will be followed by the death of what will 
gradually become the surplus Sparrow population ; but, in view of the Sparrow's 
proved ability to adapt himself to widely-varying conditions, we must believe 
that when the city fails to yield him a living he will spread into the surrounding 
country. There he will be brought into direct competition with our native species, 
with what result it is not difficult to predict. 

The extermination of the Sparrow in this country is believed to be an impossi- 
bility ; but it probably can be kept in check by persistent and continuous effort 
under the direction of the State ; and, in the opinion of the writer, the subject is 
of sufficient importance to warrant prompt action on the part of the State. 

TANAGERS. Family Tanagridas. 

Scarlet Tanager {Piranga erythromelas). — "Of twenty-nine specimens exam- 
ined, one had eaten ants ; three, three ichneumon flies, two of them Thalessa luna- 
tor ?, the other a small species having an extent of wing of one-tenth of an inch ; 
eight, twenty-six caterpillars ; three, six diptera, three of them tipulids ; seventeen, 
forty-seven beetles ; three, six hemipterous insects ; four, seven grasshoppers ; one, 
a small dragon-fly ; one, a very large spider; and two, ten harvest-men. Curculios, 
elaters, and leaf-chaffers, some of them three-fourths of an inch long, were repre- 

* The English Sparrow in North America. Bull. I, Div. Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 29. 




Upper figure, CEDAR WAXWING 
Lower figure, RED-EYED VIREO 

ABOUT 3^ NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



53 



sented among the beetles. From the stomachs of three young birds less than a 
week old were taken four caterpillars, one fly, one small grasshopper, one hemip- 
terous insect, together with undetermined fragments." (King.) 

SWALLOWS. Family Hirundinidae. 

" Field observation will convince any ordinarily attentive person that the food of 
Swallows must consist of small insects captured in mid-air, or perhaps in some cases 
picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds. This observation is borne out by an 
examination of stomachs, which shows that the food consists of many small species 
of beetles which are much on the wing ; many species of diptera (mosquitoes and 
their allies), with large quantities of flying ants and a few insects of similar kinds. 
Most of them are either injurious or annoying, and the numbers destroyed by Swal- 
lows are not only beyond calculation, but almost beyond imagination. 

" It is a mistake to tear down the nests of a colony of Cliff Swallows from the 
eaves of a barn, for, so far from disfiguring a building, the nests make a picturesque 
addition, and their presence should be encouraged by every device. It is said that 
Cliff and Barn Swallows can be induced to build their nests in a particular 
locality, otherwise suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used as mortar. 
Barn Swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable of the 
barn, while Martins and White-bellied Swallows will be grateful for boxes, like those 
for the Bluebird, but placed in some higher situation." (Beal.) 

WAXWINGS. Family Ampelidae. 

Cedar Waxwing : Cherry Bird {Ampelis cedroruni). — "The Cedar Waxwing, 
or Cherry Bird, inhabits the whole of the United States, but is much less common 
in the west. Although the great bulk of the species retires southward in winter 
the bird is occasionally found in every State during the colder months, especially if 
wild berries are abundant. Its proverbial fondness for cherries has given rise to its 
popular name, and much complaint has been made on account of the fruit eaten. 
Observation has shown, however, that its depredations are confined to the trees on 
which the fruit ripens earliest, while later varieties are comparatively untouched, 
this probably owing to the fact that when wild fruits ripen they are preferred to 
cherries, and constitute the bulk of the Cedar Bird's diet. 

"In 152 stomachs examined animal matter formed only 13 and vegetable 87 per 
cent, showing that the bird is not wholly a fruit eater. With the exception of a 



54 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



few snails, all the animal food consists of insects, mainly beetles — and all but one 
more or less noxious, the famous elm-leaf beetle being among the number. Bark or 
scale lice were found in several stomachs, while the remainder of the animal food 
was made up of grasshoppers, bugs and the like. Three nestlings were found to 
have been fed almost entirely on insects. 

" Of the 87 per cent of vegetable food, 74 consisted entirely of wild fruit or 
seeds and 13 of cultivated fruit, but a large part of the latter was made up of black- 
berries and raspberries, and it is very doubtful whether they represent cultivated 
varieties. Cherry stealing is the chief complaint against this bird, but of the 152 
stomachs only 9, all taken in June and July, contained any remains of cultivated 
cherries, and these aggregate but 5 per cent of the year's food. As 41 stomachs 
were collected in those months, it is evident that the birds do not live to any great 
extent on cultivated cherries." (Beal.) 

" The Cedar Bird eats caterpillars, spiders, and grasshoppers, but does most good 
in destroying the elm-leaf beetle that strips our village and city trees of leaves. 
Mrs. Mary Treat writes of one town in which elms had been ruined for several years 
before the Cedar Birds came and which were afterward comparatively free from 
beetles. From one calculation, it is shown that 30 Cedar Birds would destroy 9,000 
worms during the month when the cutworm caterpillar is exposed." (Bailey.) 

SHRIKES. Family Laniidae. 

Two species of this family are found in New York. One, the Northern Shrike 
or Butcherbird, comes in late fall and passes the winter when it feeds largely on 
small birds. The other, the Loggerhead, comes in the summer and appears to be 
gradually increasing. It feeds largely on grasshoppers and should be protected. 

Butcherbird: Great Northern Shrike {Lanius borealis). — The Northern Shrike 
is a predaceous species, preying on insects, meadow mice, and birds. While with us 
it feeds largely on the two latter, Dr. Judd reporting that during December, Janu- 
ary, and February, 55 per cent of its food is birds, while 22 per cent is mammals. In 
New York State, therefore, it cannot be considered, on the whole, a beneficial 
species. 

Loggerhead Shrike {Lanius ludovicianus). — The Loggerhead is with us during 
the summer when its food consists largely of grasshoppers. Dr. Judd remarks that 
the Loggerhead's beneficial qualities outweigh 4 to 1 its injurious ones. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



55 



VIREOS. Family Vireonidae. 

Vireos are gleaners, searching the foliage carefully for leaf-eating insects and 
their eggs ; peering beneath the leaves, and examining crevices in the bark for 
forms of insect-life which are especially injurious. Several of the Vireos are abun- 
dant and the service they render is correspondingly important. 

Red-eyed Vireo {Vireo olivaceus). — "From the stomachs of eighteen of this 
species were taken fifteen caterpillars, five other larvae ; eight beetles — among them 
five weevils, one longhorn and darkling beetle, seventy heteropterous insects — 
among them sixty-seven chinch-bugs ; sixteen winged ants, one ichneumon (?), five 
dragon-flies, two dipterous insects — one of them Tabanns atratus ; and seven dog- 
wood berries. Of thirty-six other specimens examined, fifteen had eaten caterpil- 
lars ; two other, larvae ; nine beetles — among them two Coccinella malt; three, 
grasshoppers ; two, ants ; two, moths ; four, insects, none of which were identified ; 
and seven, fruits or seeds, among which were raspberries, dogwood berries, berries 
of prickly ash and sheep berries." (King.) 

Yellow-throated Vireo {Vireo flavifrons). — "Of twenty-one specimens exam- 
ined, seven had eaten caterpillars — among them geometers ; seven beetles — among 
them weevils and a buprestis ; three, grasshoppers ; two, moths; two, heteropterous 
insects — -among them leaf-hoppers ; three, dipterous insects." (King.) 

Warbling Vireo {Vireo gilvus). — "Of sixteen specimens examined, eight had 
eaten thirty-four caterpillars ; two, five beetles, among which were a lady-bird 
{Coccinilla G — notata), and a Diabrotica duodecim-piinctata ; three, three heterop- 
terous insects ; two, two crane-flies ; one, grasshoppers ; two, twenty-eight insects' 
eggs ; and one, dogwood berries." (King.) 

WARBLERS. Family Mniotiltidse. 

With few exceptions the members of this large family, containing many abun- 
dant species, feed exclusively upon insects. 

Black and White Warbler {Mniotilta varia). — " Owing to the small size of 
these birds, they find it profitable to feed extensively upon very small insects. For 
this reason they are able to do a work for which the Nuthatches and Woodpeckers 
are not so well fitted. It is, therefore, especially desirable that they should attain a 
greater abundance with us. 

" Food : Of seventeen specimens examined, three had eaten five ants ; two, 
twenty-one caterpillars, twenty of which were small measuring-worms; three, four 
moths; three, five diptera ; six, sixteen beetles, one of which was a curculio ; two, 



56 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



seven heteroptera ; one, a caddis-fly ; and one a small snail (Physa). Two had eaten 
one hundred and one insects' eggs, but these, I believe, were contained in the 
insects which the birds had eaten." (King.) 

Redstart {Setophaga ruticilld). — "Its broad-based bill, and strong depending 
rictals, giving to the mouth, when open, the shape of a wide funnel, its keen vision, 
and its whole aerial outfit are adjusted to the gall-flies, leaf-miners, and other dimin- 
utive insects among which it lives, and upon which, I have no doubt, >t feeds. 
Could it be induced to live in orchards, vineyards, gardens and parks, it would 
there perform a work which the Pewee, the Least Flycatcher and the Kingbird can- 
not. Mr. Samuels says he has known a pair to build, and rear a brood, in a garden 
within five rods from a house. 

" Food : From the contents of eleven stomachs, examined collectively, were 
taken fourteen small beetles, some of them .09 of an inch long ; four very small 
moths, four small hymenopterous insects, one an ichneumon, and one, one of the 
Proctretrypidse ? .1 of an inch long; one heteropterous insect .08 of an inch long, and 
a large number of dipterous insects, the majority of them less than one-tenth of an 
inch long. Three others had in their stomachs a single small larva each." (King.) 

PIPITS and WAGTAILS. Family Motacillidse. 

American Pipits: Titlark {Anthus pensilvanicus). — No extended study of the 
food habits of this species appears to have been made. It is asserted, however, by 
various authors to feed on beetles, spiders, seeds in the fields, and along shore on 
minute shells, shrimps, etc. 

WRENS and THRASHERS. Family Troglodytidae. 

House Wren {Troglodytes aedon). — "As regards food habits, the House Wren is 
entirely beneficial. Practically, he can be said to live upon animal food only, for an 
examination of 52 stomachs showed that 98 per cent of the stomach contents was 
made up of insects or their allies, and only 2 per cent was vegetable, including bits 
of grass and similar matter, evidently taken by accident with the insects. Half of 
this food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, 
and spiders. As the House Wren is a prolific breeder, frequently rearing from 
twelve to sixteen young in a season, a family of these birds must cause considerable 
reduction in the number of insects in a garden. Wrens are industrious foragers, 
searching every tree, shrub, or vine for caterpillars, examining every post and rail of 




Upper figure, BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER 
Lower figure, AMERICAN REDSTART 

ABOUT NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



57 



the fence, and every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders. They do not as a 
rule, fly far afield, but work industriously in the immediate vicinity of their nests. 
In this way they become valuable aids in the garden or orchard, and by providing 
suitable nesting boxes they may be induced to take up residence where their serv- 
ices will do most good. Their eccentricities in the selection of a home are well 
known. Almost anything from an old cigar box to a tomato can, an old teapot, a 
worn boot, or a horse's skull, is acceptable, provided it be placed well up from the 
ground and out of reach of cats and other prowlers." (Beal.) 

Brown Thrasher (Toxostorna rufum). — "The food of the Brown Thrasher con- 
sists of both fruit and insects. An examination of 121 stomachs showed 36 per cent 
of vegetable and 64 of animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in 
spring before fruit is ripe. Half the insects were beetles, and the remainder chiefly 
grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predaceous beetles were eaten, 
but, on the whole, its work as an insect destroyer may be considered beneficial. 

" Eight per cent of the food is made up of fruits like raspberries and currants 
which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least are as likely to belong 
to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made up mostly of scattered kernels of 
oats and corn, is merely a trifle, amounting to only 3 per cent, and though some of 
the corn may be taken from newly planted fields, it is amply paid for by the May 
beetles which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists of wild 
fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the Brown Thrasher is a useful bird, and probably 
does just as good work in its secluded retreats as it would about the garden, for the 
swamps and groves are no doubt the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate 
thence to attack the farmers' crops." (Beal.) 

Catbird {Galeoscoptes carolinensis). — Professor Beal states that " cultivated 
fruits can be protected from Catbirds by the simple expedient of planting wild 
species or others which are preferred by the birds. Some experiments with Catbirds 
in captivity showed that the Russian mulberry was preferred to any cultivated fruit 
that could be offered". 

He adds : " The stomachs of 213 Catbirds were examined and found to contain 
44 per cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food. Ants, beetles 
caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal food, the 
remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects and spiders. One-third of 
the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits, or those which may be cultivated, 
such as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries ; but while we debit the bird with 
the whole of this, it is probable — and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the 
country almost certain — that a large part was obtained from wild vines. The rest 



58 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, such as cherries, dogwood, sour gum, 
elder berries, greenbrier, spice berries, black alder, sumac, and poison ivy. 

" Although the Catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying small 
fruit, the bird cannot be considered injurious. On the contrary, in most parts of 
the country it does far more good than harm, and the evil it does can be reduced 
appreciably by the methods already pointed out." 

CREEPERS. Family Certhiidae. 

Brown Creeper {Certliia familiaris). — Probably few birds are more wholly 
beneficial than this persistent hunter after insects and other eggs. With an appar- 
ently never-satisfied hunger for the smaller forms of insect life that live in the 
crevices of the bark of trees, it searches the tree trunks from daylight until dark, 
and if the service it renders daily could be expressed in figures we should doubtless 
find that, individually, the Brown Creeper was among our most valuable birds. 

NUTHATCHES AND CHICKADEES. Family Parids. 

The members of this family feed largely on the eggs of beetles, plant lice, and 
other forms injurious to vegetation. 

White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis). — "Of thirty-five specimens 
examined, fourteen had eaten thirty-two beetles — among which were three elaters, 
one longhorn and a lady-bug (?) ; one, two ants ; one, two caterpillars ; one, two 
grubs of a beetle ; one, a spider ; one, a chrysalis ; one, small toad-stools ; five, 
acorns; and one, corn." (King.) 

Chickadee (Parus atricapillus). — The following facts in relation to the food of 
the Chickadee are taken from Mr. Forbush's study of this species in Massachusetts, 
previously referred to : 

" To determine how many eggs a single Chickadee would eat, a few birds were 
killed and their stomach contents examined, with surprising results. There was no 
difficulty in identifying the eggs of the canker-worm moth which were found in the 
bird's stomach, as a great portion of the shells remained intact. The other insect 
contents of the stomach were identified for me through the kindness of Mr. A. H. 
Kirkland, B. Sc., assistant entomologist of the State Board of Agriculture, who 
made the examinations. Although it was impossible in all cases to learn with cer- 
tainty the species to which certain insects belonged, it was evident they belonged to 
genera known to be of injurious habits. 

" I. take the following from Mr. Bailey's notes: 



Upper figure, CHICKADEE (Parus Atricapillus ) 
Lower figure, WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH (Sitta carolinensis ) 

ABOUT 5£ NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 59 
" Number of Eggs of the Fall Canker-worm Found in the Stomachs of Chickadees. 

EGGS. 

No. 1, - 273 

2, - -- -- 261 

3. 216 
4, - - - 278 



making in all 1,028 eggs found in the stomachs of four birds. Four birds killed 
later in the season had eaten the female imagos of the spring canker-worm {Palea- 
crita veriiatd), as follows : 



MOTHS. 

"No. 1, - 41 

2, - - 18 

3, 27 
4, - - - - 19 



making a total of 105. In Nos. 2, 3 and 4 of the last table there were a large 
number of eggs also. It is safe to say that there were 1 50 eggs in each stomach, in 
addition to the female moths eaten. 

"Mr. Bailey carefully counted the eggs in the ovaries of twenty of these female 
moths, with the following result : 



No. 1, - 158 

2, - - 272 

3, - I2 7 

4, ----- - 184 

5- ----- 213 

6 , - - - 135 

7, — - - Mo 

8, - -- -- -- -- -- - 220 

9, - -- -- -- -- -- - 200 

10, - - - 130 

11, - - - - - - - - - - - - in 

12, - 160 

13, " - " " " J 93 

14, - - " I3 1 

15, ------- 281 

16, 242 

17, - - " 116 

18, - - 281 

!9, I 9 2 

20, ------------ 217 



6o SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



" It will be seen from this table that the average number of eggs found in each 
moth is 185. Mr. Bailey is very positive, from his continuous field observations, that 
each Chickadee will devour on the average 30 female canker-worm moths per day 
from the 20th of March until the 15th of April, provided these insects are plentiful. 
If the average number of eggs laid by each female is 185, one Chickadee would thus 
destroy in one day 5,550 eggs; and in the twenty-five days the canker-worm moths 
' run ' or crawl up the trees, 138,750. It may be thought that this computation is 
excessive, and it is probable that some of the moths were not captured until they 
had laid some of their eggs, but the Chickadees are also busy eating these eggs. 
* * * When we consider further that 41 of these insects, distended as they were 
with eggs, were found at one time in the stomach of one Chickadee, and that the 
digestion of the bird is so rapid that its stomach was probably filled several times 
daily, the estimate made by Mr. Bailey seems a very conservative one. He now 
regards the Chickadee as the best friend the farmer has, for the reason that it is 
with him all the year, and there is no bird that can compare with it in destroying 
the female moths and their eggs." (Forbush.) 

KINGLETS, GNATCATCHERS, ETC. Family Sylviidae. 

The small size of Kinglets combined with their great activity permits them to 
explore the terminal buds more easily than larger birds could, and they therefore 
occupy an important position in the army of bird tree protectors. 

Rusty-crowned Kinglet (Regains calendula). — "Of seven specimens examined, 
two had eaten four small caterpillars; three, five beetles; one, an ant; one, a 
chalcis-fly, and two bits of insects not identified." (King.) 

Golden-crowned Kinglet (Rcgulus satrapa). — "Of nine specimens examined 
two had eaten twelve small diptera ; three, nine small beetles ; one, four cater- 
pillars; one, a small chrysalis, and three, very small bits of insects, too fine to be 
identified." (King.) 

THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. Family Turdidae. 

Robin (Merula migratoria). — "The Robin builds its nest in orchards and gar- 
dens, and occasionally takes advantage of a nook about the house, or under the 
shelter of the roof of a shed or outbuilding. Its food habits have sometimes caused 
apprehension to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits, 
particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many complaints have been 
lodged against it, and some persons have gone so far as to condemn the bird. The 




Upper figure, GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET 
Lower figure, RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET 
Left-hand figure, BROWN CREEPER 

NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



6l 



Robin is, however, too valuable to be exterminated, and choice fruit can be readily 
protected from its depredations. 

"An examination of 330 stomachs shows that over 42 per cent of its food is 
animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up largely of small 
fruits or berries. Over 19 per cent consists of beetles, about one-third of 
which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in spring and fall, when other insects 
are scarce. Grasshoppers make up about one-tenth of the whole food, but in 
August comprise over 30 per cent. Caterpillars form 6 per cent, while the rest of 
the animal food, about 7 per cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders, 
snails, and angle-worms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs, with a large 
■portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say that noxious insects com- 
prise more than one-third of the Robin's food. 

"Vegetable food forms nearly 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over 47 being 
wild fruits, and only little more than 4 per cent being possibly cultivated varieties. 
Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent was found in the stomachs in June 
and July, but only a trifle in August. Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten every 
month, and constitutes a staple food during half the year. No less than forty-one 
species were identified in the stomachs ; of these, the most important were four 
species of dogwood, three of wild cherries, three of wild grapes, four of greenbrier, 
two of holly, two of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, blueberries, barberries, 
service berries, hackberries, and persimmons, with four species of sumac, and various 
other seeds not strictly fruit. 

" The depredations of the Robin seem to be confined to the smaller and earlier 
fruits, and few, if any, complaints have been made against it on the score of eating 
apples, peaches, pears, grapes, or even late cherries. By the time these are ripe the 
forests and hedges are teeming with wild fruits, which the bird evidently finds more 
to its taste. The cherry, unfortunately, ripens so early that it is almost the only 
fruit accessible at a time when the bird's appetite has been sharpened by a long- 
continued diet of insects, earth-worms, and dried berries, and it is no wonder that 
at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten. In view of the fact that the Robin 
takes ten times as much wild fruit as cultivated fruit, it seems unwise to destroy the 
birds to save so little. Nor is this necessary, for by a little care both may be pre- 
served. Where much fruit is grown it is no great loss to give up one tree to the 
birds ; and in some cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows. Where wild 
fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines judiciously planted will 
serve for an ornament and provide food for the birds. The Russian mulberry is a 
vigorous grower and a profuse bearer, ripening at the same time as the cherry, and, 



62 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



so far as observation has gone, most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other. It 
is believed that a number of these planted around the garden or orchard would 
fully protect the more valuable fruits." (Beal.) 

Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelind). — Professor Forbes writes after examining 
the contents of twenty-two birds of this species : " Seventy-one per cent of their 
food consisted of insects and twenty per cent of fruit, a small ratio of spiders and 
mollusks, and an unusually large percentage of Myriopoda making up the remain- 
der." After discussing in detail the bird's economic relations the same author adds : 
" Its advances, therefore, are to be cordially encouraged by the gardener and farmer 
— a fact which must be especially agreeable to every lover of bird music, who has 
learned to recognize the full, clear, rich, exquisite strains of this songster." 

Hermit Thrush {Hylocichla guttata pallasii). — Of the food contents of the 
stomachs of twenty-one Hermit Thrushes Professor Forbes writes : " Eighty-four 
per cent of the food consisted of insects, four per cent of spiders, and twelve per 
cent of thousand-legs. Ants amounted to fifteen per cent, Lepidoptera to nineteen 
per cent, including a few Phalaenidae, and Diptera only to three — chiefly the larvae 
of Bibio. Coleoptera make thirty per cent of the carabidae." 

Bluebird {Sialia sialis). — "So far as known, this bird has not been accused of 
stealing fruit or of preying upon any crops. An examination of 205 stomachs 
showed that 76 per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while the 
other 24 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found mostly in 
stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 28 per cent of the whole food, grass- 
hoppers 22, caterpillars 11, and various insects, including quite a number of spiders, 
comprise the remainder of insect diet. All are more or less harmful, except a few 
predaceous beetles, which amount to 8 per cent, but in view of the large consump- 
tion of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we can at least condone this defence, if such it 
may be called. The destruction of grasshoppers is very noticeable in the months of 
August and September, when these insects form more than 60 per cent of the diet. 

" It is evident that in the selection of its food the Bluebird is governed by abun- 
dance rather than by choice. Predaceous beetles are eaten in spring, as they are 
among the first insects to appear; but in early summer caterpillars form an impor- 
tant part of the diet, and are replaced a little later by grasshoppers. Beetles are 
eaten at all times, except when grasshoppers are more easily obtained. 

" So far as its vegetable food is concerned, the Bluebird is positively harmless. 
The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted of a few blackberry 
seeds, and even these more probably belonged to wild than cultivated varieties. 
Following is a list of the various seeds which were found : Blackberry, chokeberry, 



Upper figure, WOOD THRUSH 
Lower figure, HERMIT THRUSH 

ABOUT ?^ NATURAL SIZE. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF' BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



63 



juniperberry, pokeberry, partridge berry, greenbrier, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, 
holly-strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several species), rose 
haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list shows how little the Bluebird 
depends upon the farm or garden to supply its needs, and indicates that by 
encouraging the growth of some of these plants, many of which are highly orna- 
mental, the bird can be i iduced to make its home on the premises." (Beal.) 

A List of tl)e Aore Important Papers Relating to tl)e Pood 

of American fjirds. 

1859. Jenks, J. VV. P., Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 

1859. Treadwell, D., [Food of Young Robins.] Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VI, 
PP- 39 6 "399- 

1878. Aughey, Samuel, Notes on the Nature of the Food of the Birds of 
Nebraska. 

1880. Forbes, S. A., The Food of Birds. Bull. 3, Ills. State Laboratory of Nat. 
Hist., pp. 80-149. Trans. Ills. Hort. Soc, XIII, pp. 120-172. 

1883. King, F. H., Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds. Geology of Wiscon- 
sin, Vol. I, pp. 441-610. 

1883. Forbes, S. A., The Regulative Action of Birds upon Insect Oscillations. 
Bull. 6, Ills. State Laboratory of Nat. Hist., pp. 3-32. 

1886. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report of 

U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, pp. 227-258. 

1887. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report of 

U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, pp. 399-456. 
1887. Fisher, A. K., Food for Hawks and Owls. Report of U. S. Commissioner 

of Agriculture, pp. 402-422. 
1887. Fisher, A. K., Experiments in Poisoning. Ibid., pp. 423-426. 
1887. Bailey, Vernon, Reports on Some of the Results of a Trip Through Parts 

of Minnesota and Dakota. Ibid., pp. 426-454. 

1887. Fisher, A. K., Notes on the Depredations of Blackbirds and Gophers in 

Northern Iowa and Southern Minnesota in the Fall of 1887. Ibid., pp. 
454-456. 

1888. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report 

of the Commissioner of Agriculture, pp. 477-536. 
1888. Fisher, A. K., The Sparrow Hawk {Falco sparverius). Ibid., pp. 491-496. 
1888. Fisher, A. K., The Short-Eared Owl (Asio accipitrinus). Ibid., pp. 496-498. 
1888. Barrows, Walter B., The Food of Crows. Ibid., pp. 498-535. 



6 4 



SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



1888. Warren, B. H., Report on the Birds of Pennsylvania, with Special Reference 

to the Food Habits, Based on over Three Thousand Stomach Examina- 
tions. Harrisburg, Pa. E. K. Meyer, State Printer, pp. xii-260; colored 
pll., 50. 

1889. Barrows, Walter B., The English Sparrow in North America, Especially in 

its Relation to Agriculture. Bull. No. 1, Div. of Economic Ornithology 
and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. i-405, 1 map. 

1889. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. First 
Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 363-376. 

1889. Fisher, A. K., Marsh Hawks {Circus liudsonius). Ibid., pp. 370-372. 

1889. Fisher, A. K., Common Screech Owl {Megascops asio). Ibid., pp. 372-376. 

1890. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report 

of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 277-285. 
1890. Barrows, Walter B., Seed Planting by Birds. Ibid., pp. 280-285. 
1890. Merriam, C. Hart, Birds which Feed on Mulberries. Ibid., p. 285. 

1890. Warren, B. H., Report on the Birds of Pennsylvania, with Special Reference 

to the Food Habits, Based on over Four Thousand Stomach Examinations. 
Second edition. Harrisburg, Pa. E. K. Meyer, State Printer, pp. xiv- 
434 ; pll., 100. 

1891. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report 

of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 267-271. 

1892. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report 

of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 181-200. 
1892. Barrows, Walter B., Food of the Horned Larks or Shore Larks {Otocoris). 
Ibid., pp. 193-197- 

1892. Beal, F. E. L., Food Habits of the Cedar Bird {Ampclis cedroruni). Ibid., 

pp. 197-200. 

1893. Fisher, A. K., The Hawks and Owls of the United States in their Relation 

to Agriculture. Bull. No. 3, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. 
Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 209; colored pll., 26. 
1893. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report 
of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 227-234. 

1893. Barrows, Walter B., Food Habits of the Kingbird or Bee Martin {Tyrannus 

tyrannus). Ibid., pp. 233, 234. 

1894. Merriam, C. Hart, The Geographic Distribution of Animals and Plants in 

North America. Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 203-214. 
1894. Fisher, A. K., Hawks and Owls as Related to the Farmer. Ibid., pp. 215-232. 
1894. Beal, F. E. L., The Crow Blackbirds and their Food. Ibid., pp. 233-248. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 



65 



1895. Barrows, Walter B., and Schwarz, E. A., The Common Crow of the United 
States. Bull. No. 6, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture, pp. 1-98. 

1895. Beal, F. E. L., Preliminary Report on the Food of Woodpeckers. Bull. No. 
7, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 1-39. 

1895. Forbush, E. H., Birds as Protectors of Orchards. Bull, No. 3, Series of 1895, 
Mass. Board of Agriculture, pp. 20-32. 

1 895. Judd, Sylvester D., Four Common Birds of the Farm and Garden. Year- 
book of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 405-418. 

1895. Beal, F. E. L., The Meadowlark and Baltimore Oriole. Ibid., pp. 419-430. 

1896. Fisher, A. K., Food of the Barn Owl (Strix pratincola). Science, III, pp. 

623, 624. 

1896. Forbush, E. H., The Crow in Massachusetts. Bull. No. 4, Series of 1896, 

Mass. Board of Agriculture, pp. 24-40. 
1896. Palmer, T. S., Extermination of Noxious Animals by Bounties. Yearbook 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 55-68. 
1896. Beal, F. E. L., The Blue Jay and its Food. Ibid., pp. 197-206. 

1896. Merriam, Florence A., How Birds Affect the Farm and Garden. Forest and 

Stream, 1896; also printed separately, 16 mo., pp. 32. 

1897. Beal, F. E. L., Some Common Birds in their Relation to Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bull. No. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 1-40. 
1897. Merriam, C. H., Chief, Biological Survey [Report of Work of]. Yearbook 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 11 5-1 22. 
1897. Beal, F. E. L., Birds that Injure Grain. Ibid., pp. 345-350. 

1897. Judd, Sylvester D., Methods in Economic Ornithology, with Special Refer- 

ence to the Catbird. Am. Naturalist, pp. 392-397. 

1898. Palmer, T. S., The Danger of Introducing Noxious Animals and Birds. 

Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 87-110. 
1898. Judd, Sylvester D., Birds as Weed Destroyers. Ibid., pp. 221-232. 
1898. Weed, Clarence M., The Feeding Habits of the Chipping Sparrow. Bull. 55, 

New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 101-110. 
1898. Weed, Clarence M., The Winter Food of the Chickadee. Ibid., Bull. 54, pp. 

85-98. 

1898. Rhoads, S. N., " Noxious " or " Beneficial " ? False Premises in Economic 

Zoology. Am. Naturalist, pp. 571-581. 
1898. Forbush, E. H., Nature's Foresters. Bull. No. 1, Series of 1898, Mass. 

Board of Agriculture, pp. 27-40. 
1898. Beal, F. E. L., The Food of Cuckoos. Bull. No. 9, Div. Biological Survey. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 7-14. 



66 



SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 



1898. Judd, Sylvester D., The Food of Shrikes. Ibid., pp. 15-26. 

1898. Merriam, Florence A., Birds of Village and Field. A Bird Book for Begin- 
ners. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Contains much information regarding 
food of birds. 

1898. Nash, Charles W., The Birds of Ontario in Relation to Agriculture. 

Reprinted from the Report of the Farmers' Institutes of Ontario by the 
Ontario Dept. of Agriculture, Toronto, pp. 1-32. 

1899. Palmer, T. S., A Review of Economic Ornithology in the United States. 

Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 259-292. 

1899. Beal, F. E. L., Economic Relations of Birds and their Food. Proc. Twenty- 
fourth Annual Meeting of the N. J. State Hort. Soc, pp. 1-27. 

1899. Grant, Annie M., Birds. Report R. I. Board of Agriculture for 1899, pp. 33. 

1899. Montgomery, Thomas H., Jr., Observations on Owls, with Particular Regard 
to their Feeding Habits. Am. Naturalist, pp. 563-572. 

1899. Praeger, Wm. E., Birds in Horticulture. A paper read before the State 

Horticultural Society at Springfield, Ills., Dec. 26, 1899, pp. 1-12. 

1900. Beal, F. E. L., How Birds Affect the Orchard. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of 

Agriculture, pp. 291-304. 
1900. Judd, Sylvester D., The Food of Nestling Birds. Ibid., pp. 411-436. 

1900. Chapman, Frank M.. The Value of the Bird to the Commonwealth. Report 

of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture of Connecticut, pp. 41. 

1901. Brown, John P., The Relation of Birds and Forests. A paper read before 

the Audubon Society of Indiana at Indianapolis, March 19, 1901, pp. 3. 
1901. Brunei", Lawrence, Birds in their Relation to Agriculture. Proc. Neb. 

Ornithologists' Union (Lincoln, Neb.), pp. 18-29. 
1901. Judd, Sylvester D., The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. Bull. No. 15, 

Div. Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 1-98. 

1901. Weed, Clarence M., and Dearborn, Ned, The Food of the Myrtle Warbler. 

1902. Attwater, H. P., The Relation of Birds to the Farmer. An address delivered 

at the Annual Session of the Texas Farmers' College Station, Texas, July 
17, 1902, pp. 1— 1 2. 

1902. Bailey, Florence Merriam, Handbook of Birds of the Western United States. 

Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Contains much concerning the food of birds. 
1902. Judd, S. D., The Birds of a Maryland Farm. Bull. 17, Biological Survey, 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
1902. Weed, Clarence Moores, The Mission of the Birds. Nature Study Leaflet 

No. 2, N. H. College Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 1.5-24. 
1902. Weed, Clarence M., A Partial Bibliography of the Economic Relations of 

North American Birds. Ibid., Technical Bull. No. 3, pp. 137-179. 



LB Mr '05 



